Objectives

Trench BI, excavated in 2006–2010, was opened in order to understand the evolution of the space in front of the church over time. It quickly became clear that the area was used intensively as a cemetery, and understanding the chronology of the burials became a key priority.

Dimensions

BI is an open area of excavation of 14.20 x 12 metres, west of the church façade, in line with and immediately south of trench BII (Fig. 1). The size and position of the trench was initially dictated in 2006 by the location of the church, and extended to the west and south in 2007 and 2008 to expose the full extent of the late medieval churchyard and bell tower (Fig. 2). In 2009 and 2010, the objective was to fully excavate the narthex and to understand better the early church; thus the area of excavation was restricted north of the fortification wall [2001] to the area between the bell tower and the church, while south of the fortification wall it was restricted to the narthex itself.

Stratigraphy¹²

Early Roman Period (Fig. 3)

Paved surface

The earliest context found in BI consists of a surface of limestone and basalt paving stones 2063=2209=2324=2326=2931=3539=3805=3853=3869=3870=3871=3872 extending throughout the area in front of the church and west of [4005] (Fig. 4).³ Consisting of large dressed limestone pavers, the surface was slightly uneven in height with an average height of ca. -0.80 m. It seems likely that this pavement formed some kind of courtyard related to the cryptoporticus in BII. Although the pavement was missing immediately in front of the later church, we can assume that it originally covered the whole area of the trench.

A sondage (1 x 1.8 m) dug in the northwest quadrant of the trench revealed a thin layer of hard yellow clay packed with brick, stone and mortar (2062) below the pavement 2063, perhaps its preparation. Below was a thick layer of very hard yellow clay (3780). This layer was partially dug to a depth of 10 cm and contained first to early second century Roman ceramics. It is likely that this is a clay levelling deposit laid down for the construction of the pavement. Similar clay has been found in the lower levels across the entire site, as well as elsewhere in this trench (3920)=(3889).⁴

Column Fragment

In the centre of the trench was a circular cut 3923 containing a cipollino column fragment [3922] atop a slab of white marble in a hard mortar and rubble packing (3970) (Fig. 5). This was cut into the yellow clay preparation for the flagstone pavement (3969) and apparently sealed by the pavers, although later disturbances make this uncertain. The column dates to the Tiberian period, to judge from a sherd of a cup of Conspectus type 22.5 (identified by P. Umbri) in the plaster adhering to it. It appears to have been buried at the time of the construction of the court. It has been interpreted as a votive deposit, commemorating an earlier villa on the site.⁵

Middle Roman deposit (second- or third centuries)

Circular pit

A small circular pit 3924/(3925) containing a deposit of second- or third-century pottery including some pieces of Hayes 197 and glass was cut into the area in front of the later church, in what might be imagined as the middle of the courtyard. The pit is truncated in the middle, to south and north by later graves. It was cut into a layer of yellow packing clay (3920) extending across the area in front of the church.

Late Roman Brick Building (Fig. 6)

Brick building

A large apsidal structure constructed in opus testaceum was built on the courtyard. The north–south opus testaceum wall [3804]=[3796]=[3951] (Fig. 7), upon which the western façade of the church was built in the sixth century, remains in situ. [3804] survives below [2046], the modern repair of the northwest corner of the church, while [3951] is visible below the modern church entrance. Further south, and below [2004] and [2005], [3796] survives to a height of 0.41 m. The wall is constructed with a very hard red-purple mortar and consists of courses of bricks of varying lengths and thicknesses with wide mortar joints. [3804], [3951], and [3796] have the same masonry and mortar as the opus testaceum walls visible under the eastern façade of the church and its apse and underneath its north wall [4548].⁶ This suggests that the brick church was an apsidal structure with the same plan as the later opus vittatum church. The brickwork seems consistent with masonry in Rome dating to the fourth century.

A portion of the foundation trench 3976 of this brick building was found in the northeastern corner of the trench (Fig. 8), sealed by the later surface 3777 (see below, Fig. 10). The majority of the trench was packed with a clean brown clay fill (3978), topped with a deposit (3977) of clay mixed with pottery, mortar and broken tiles. (3977) contained third-century ceramics including Cadiz amphora, Hayes 3c, 45A, 48, 50, 182, 197, as well as a fragment of a decorated glass beaker dating to the fourth or fifth century.⁷ It also contained some fragments of bronze (O1075, O1076). Although the bulk of the pottery has a third-century date, the glass and the brickwork make a later date possible.

Traces of a substantial entrance porch to this structure survive in [2373], [2992] and [3803]. [2373] is the northern wall of the porch (Fig. 9). It is a substantial east–west wall (width = 1.66 m; length = 3.58 m) of large limestone blocks, tile and a hard yellowish-white mortar. The lowest foundation course protrudes by 10 cm, consists of roughly cut blocks and was covered by the surface 3777. Later construction activity makes it impossible to confirm the relation between [2373] and the church façade [2804]/[2796], but they were presumably constructed at the same time. [2373] bonds with a much thinner (w= 0.28 m) north–south wall [3992] of squared pietra tartara (local porous limestone) and tile fragments with yellowish-white mortar. Only a fragment of [3992] survives. To the south, the lower courses of a substantial east–west foundation [3803] of pietra tartara, large limestone blocks and a similar yellowish-white mortar are partly visible under the fortification wall [2001] for a distance of 3 m. It seems likely that this wall was the southern porch wall.

A white plastered mortar surface 3777 (Fig. 10) sits on top of the foundation offset [3975] of the church facade [3804] and the lower course of the northern wall of the porch, [2373]. The surface abuts the northern half of the church façade and runs under the earliest southern walls of the Late Medieval tombs T336 and T337 (see below). A construction cut 3917 for the later narthex wall [2422] makes it impossible to determine the northern limits. 3777 also covers the paving stones 2321. It seems to have been resurfaced 3824 at least once. Any similar pavement to the south has been cut away by later graves. At some later point, before the construction of the later, central medieval portico (see below), a thin layer of clay (3798) accumulated over 3777, and in turn was covered by a rubble layer of loose stone and chunks of white-grey mortar (3797)=(3778).

Two possible vats were built within the porch⁸

The first of these comprises a walled structure of coursed Roman brick and tile abutting the brick building and the south side of the north wall of the porch [2373] (Fig. 11). It was delimited by a western wall [3937], a northern wall [2535], a southern wall [2537], and an eastern wall [2421]. At some unknown point in time, this was later re-used as a tomb T332 which contained the reductions of a minimum of ten adult individuals 3935*/(3938). The chronology is rather unclear, but it seems that this tomb was disturbed in the early medieval period by the construction cut 3940=3979 of the entrance portal for the opus vittatum church.

The east–west wall [3816] demarcates the second identical feature built against the south wall of the porch. Also built in coursed Roman brick and tile, this tomb has a 5 cm thick plaster lining (3981) which survives on three sides of the tomb, against the church façade and against the porch wall [3803] (Fig. 12). Again, this structure was ultimately used as a tomb (T333); the reduction 3971*/(3972) containing bones from a minimum of four individuals was found inside.⁹ Rubble collapse (3815) from the northern wall [3816] was also uncovered. The plaster lining and the late radiocarbon date of the sample from 3971* raise the possibility that these structures inside the porch served as vats associated with the productive complex in and around the brick building, before being used for burials in a later period, but this must remain a hypothesis.

Discussion and phasing

Without further excavation inside the church, the precise date and function of the brick building is unclear.¹⁰ The masonry and finds within the foundation trench do indicate a fourth- or fifth- century date. The basilica plan with a central apse was used in late antiquity for several building types, like reception halls, villa-temples, mausolea, as well as churches. We however favour an interpretation of a cella vinaria built in the ‘basilical’ form, similar to that excavated recently at the site of Passolombardo. We cannot prove that this was the function of our building, but it seems the most plausible interpretation of those we have considered so far.

Water feature

Presumably during the life of the brick building, an enigmatic rectangular feature (2.40 m by 1.58 m) was inserted into the flagstone pavement, which was cut away 3961 (Fig. 13). The southern wall [2416] is the only part of the structure that survives above ground level, and is an east–west wall of coursed tile, brick and limestone with traces of internal plastering. Below [2416] and set slightly inwards, is [3936], which bonds with the poorly preserved north–south walls [3987] and [3988], and southern wall [3949], damaged during the later construction of the narthex and bell tower. The walls consist of mortared large limestone blocks (similar to those used in the flagstone pavement), tile fragments and reused tartara cubilia in a cream, black-speckled mortar. A plaster surface which evened out surface irregularities survives in several places. Visible below the east–west walls, [3936] and [3949], are their foundations of roughly mortared limestone blocks, [3985] and [3986]. The internal floor was 2.11 m x 0.94 m.

Within the structure are the remains of a robbed-out mortared pavement [3953], below the level of the limestone paving of the courtyard. Below, and supporting this, are found four short north–south walls made up of slabs of opus signinum cut from a pavement and laid on their sides [3954], [3955], [3956] and [3957] (from east to west). The walls thus form three parallel tanks, which silted up with yellow clay (3963), (3964), (3965), presumably during the life of this feature.

The structure was eventually destroyed: the contexts (3958), (3959), (3960) were deposits of broken pieces of the pavement, tile, column, and marble (including a column base fragment AE1167). (3960) contained a piece of Byzantine coarseware with steccata burnishing dating to the sixth or seventh century, suggesting that the destruction of this structure may well be contemporary with the construction of the opus vittatum church (see below).¹¹ It was then covered by a deep destruction deposit of black loose earth with lumps of charcoal, lime, painted plaster pieces and tile (3591) containing fragments of ninth-century Forum Ware as well as a fragment of Roman moulding (AE1246). This black layer is presumably related to (4330) in BII, because of the similar materials and appearance.¹²

There are several possible interpretations for this feature. Given its location in what we assume to be the centre of the court and its construction and plastering, it was clearly monumental and hydraulic, perhaps the foundation for a fountain with a soak-away drain beneath it, although the lack of any fistula leading to such a structure would argue against this, or simply for a drain covered with a grate, either stone or metal, which would have later disappeared. The lack of evidence for a fistula leading into it argues against the hypothesis that it might have been a fountain, however.

Late antique Church

At some later point, the brick building was destroyed, and a single-apsed basilica constructed on the same plan in opus vittatum, with two courses of squared blocks of local tartara stone alternating with a single course of bricks. This early church building is only partially preserved due to later additions and repairs: on the western façade of the church, the original building is visible in the contexts [2057], [2004] and [2006], on either side of the modern entrance and the southern corner (Fig. 14).¹³ The masonry preserves two of an original three windows at the height of the current door: one is visible in the later blocking [2095] to the north of the door and another is visible in the insertion of the modern entrance [2023] on the south side. Two rectangular doors to the church were built on either side of a central door. No traces of a construction trench for the foundation of this building were found as it was erected on the foundations of the earlier building.

The original threshold to the basilica’s main entrance survives in [3969], two large re-used ashlar blocks laid horizontally for a length of 2.56 m (Fig. 15). It sits on top of a foundation course [3952] of mortared roughly square blocks covering [3951], the razed wall of the brick church. The short north–south opus vittatum wall [3755] (1.15 m long, 0.13 m wide) abutting the façade of the brick church is presumably some sort of support for the threshold. Traces of a similar wall support may have existed on the northern side of the threshold above [2421], but the preservation is such that it is impossible to determine. The foundation cut and trench for the threshold were excavated. The oblong foundation trench 3940=3979 cuts the clay packing (3920), the southern wall [2537] of T332 and the porch foundation [3803]. The trench fill (3942)=(3980) contained large amounts of tile, mortar and rubble. The pottery includes a fragment of Hayes 91, a lamp, as well as large amounts of pottery with a steccata burnishing which Totten dates to the sixth or seventh centuries.¹⁴

The southern door is 1.45 m wide, its height is difficult to reconstruct due to its later blocking [2005], although it must obviously have been lower than the windows (Fig. 16). The threshold [3950] of the north door (also 1.45 m wide) survives, and is built of rectangular travertine blocks. This door was also blocked [2145] in some later period (visible below modern ground level), and then covered by the modern rebuilding of the facade [2047] above today’s ground level.

The reconstruction of the church in opus vittatum seems to date to the sixth or seventh century based on the few finds in the foundation trench. A mid-sixth century date is suggested by the residual coins of Justinian I and fineware (ARS forms 104B, 104C, 107 and 109) found throughout the area in front of the church, and the contemporary remodelling of the portico into a storage facility with dolia.¹⁵

Narthex

At some later point, the facade of the church was remodelled and a narthex added (Fig. 17). The narthex area and courtyard subsequently began to be used for burials. The tombs in the narthex are all walled, usually constructed from re-used marble slabs and Roman bricks and tiles. The earliest tombs in the sequence are located near the southern entrance and contain a single inhumation laid out in an empty space. The later burials contain multiple interments and may have included some shroud burials.

Narthex and rebuilding of church

A narthex was constructed in line with and abutting the church façade, measuring 4.75 m by 12 m. In order to create the narthex, the entire clerestory of the church was rebuilt: the facade windows were blocked [2095] and a new window was inserted above the narthex roof (see Fig. 14). The remodeling was carried out in opus vittatum [2142] and [2143] of a slightly different technique than the previous phase, involving alternating single courses of brick and tartara. That this remodeling was contemporary with the building of the narthex is suggested by the fact that any roof for the narthex would necessarily have blocked the low triple windows above the door.

The narthex itself consists of a series of bonded opus vittatum walls running east–west abutting the church and running north–south in front of the building. They are constructed from reused Roman bricks and blocks of limestone and have wide mortar joints. The north wall of the narthex [2422] is 4.48 m in length, and perpendicular to [2369] (Fig. 18). It abuts the original church façade, but is now covered by the later rebuilding of the northwest corner of the church [2046]. Its foundation cut, 3917, measures 0.78 m wide and 3.98 m deep; it was backfilled by a mix of yellowish clay and large rubble,(3941), which probably is the same as (4491). The foundation fill is only preserved in the northeast corner; elsewhere it was cut away during the construction of later walled tombs. On the north side of [2422], in BII, the foundation cut for the narthex wall was tentatively identified in 4490, but was not excavated. The wall is interrupted by a door 1.37 m wide, which formed a northern side entrance to the narthex.

The western wall of the narthex survives in four parts, [2369], [2807], [2909] and [2328], and consists of two raised walls connected by a low foundation wall. The best-preserved component is [2369], some 1.34 m in length and 0.34 m in width (Fig. 19); it sits directly on top of the limestone pavement 2326 and continues below [2031] and [2053] to bond with [2422]. A low wall [2807] constructed of mortared tile and stones, continues its line and sits directly on top of the pavement some 41 cm lower than [2369] on a north–south axis. [2807] is poorly preserved, and cut into by a number of later graves. [2909] is bonded to [2807], its face is preserved on the west and southern sides. It is abutted by a paving stone from the pavement 2931, which was presumably reset at some later point. [2328] continues the alignment of [2909] in the southern area of the trench and may well be the same wall; it is only partially preserved due to the construction of the late medieval fortification and later graves. The foundation offset [2776] survives. The western wall bonds with the south wall [2411]=[2223] (foundation offset [2775]) which abuts the church façade on its southwest corner. In the wall there is a door some 1.21 m wide, directly opposite that in [2422], providing an entrance to the narthex from the south (later filled in by [2410]).

Two bonded re-used Roman marble slabs 2741 (Fig. 20) sit on top of [2775] the foundation offset of [2411], the southern narthex wall, and together with a third remnant of marble slab 3794 are presumably fragments of the original narthex pavement. The marble slabs are the same level as both the north and south threshold of the narthex and lie ten cm below the threshold of the door in the western façade of the church. A small area of pavement preparation (3918) was found north of a later medieval fortification wall at approximately the same elevation. In various parts of the trench, a hard clay layer (2742) was exposed in the narthex area; this presumably ran below the narthex pavement and may be associated with the construction of the villa. [3840] contained ceramics dating between 50BC and 225AD, including Dressel 2–4. A partially preserved curved step [3842] (see below, Fig. 21) was found in front of the blocked southern side entrance [2005], indicating that in this phase, all of the three church entrances were in use.

We can reconstruct the narthex by comparing it to extant nartheces, including S. Vitale, Rome (402–17) and S. Apollinare in Classe (533–49), both of which have columns supporting arches in front of the door and a single-pitch roof which leaned against the façade.¹⁶ It seems likely that the western wall supported a series of piers at intervals, creating a colonnaded or arched entrance to the narthex. The narthex at S. Pietro di Villamagna had lateral doors, one to the north and one to the south, though any traces of the central arches, columns, piers or the like have been lost through later activity in this area.

The construction date of the narthex and remodelling of the church is unclear. It must postdate the sixth century and the radiocarbon results from later burials (see below) provide a terminus ante quem of the tenth century. Further evidence for refurbishment of the church comes from the significant amount of late eighth- or ninth-century marble liturgical furniture found in later contexts in and around the church.¹⁷ It is not impossible that the narthex and rebuilding of the exterior of the church are contemporary with the remodelling of the church interior, though the narthex form and masonry type are consistent with an earlier date in the sixth or seventh century, soon after the first listatum church was built.

Narthex burials

At some point after its construction, the narthex was used for a series of walled tombs (Fig. 20, above; Fig. 21):

T322

The earliest tomb identified was a north–south walled tomb, constructed against the façade of the church (Fig. 22). An east–west wall [3857] and north–south wall [3845] of degraded tufa are its southern and western limits. A line of mortared tile fragments and blocks of pietra tartara [3844] abutting the church façade form its eastern limit. At the bottom of the tomb was the natural bedrock. The grave contained the complete skeleton of a large adult male 3864*/(3865)=(3793)/3866, aged between 45 and 55 years. The skull had fallen to the east and was resting on a sloped tile [3989]; the left arm had collapsed indicating that the body was buried in an empty space. 3864* provided a radiocarbon date of 1126 ± 29 BP or 780–990 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-26150).

Above this tomb, two further tile tombs were uncovered:

T318
In the southeast corner, the west–east tomb of an infant aged between 1.5 and 2.5 years was uncovered. The body 3833*/(3834) was missing its lower legs, the top of its skull and much of the torso and lower arms. The tomb has two large reused Roman tiles at its head [3837] and foot [3836]; the foundation of the narthex [2775] acted as southern limit. Further tiles or bricks may have been used to delimit the northern boundary of the tomb cut 3835. This is confirmed by analysis of the taphonomic processes, which show that the child was buried in an open space, perhaps in a tile tomb similar to those in area D. 3833* provided a radiocarbon date of 1169 ± 27 BP or 770–970 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-25050).

T323
To the north of T318, an upright Roman bipedalis [3858] oriented north–south demarcates the western wall of a second infant tomb (cut is 3875). The façade of the church (in this case the lower opus testaceum courses [3796] and [3844]) form its eastern limit. The tomb contained a reduction, 3873*/(3874), consisting of fragments from the very disturbed skeletons of an infant of 9 months and a 2- to 3-year-old.

T325 (Fig. 23)
A walled tomb was placed below the marble slabs 2741 of the narthex pavement against the southern narthex wall [2775]. The northern wall [3897] was built with re-used Roman bricks and tiles; the eastern [3882] and western [3881] walls were constructed of upright Roman bipedalis tiles. Inside below a layer of natural accumulation (3880) containing some loose bone and ceramic, was an adult female 3885*/(3886)/3887 aged between 30 and 40 years. A marble tile [3990] was re-used as a head rest. The skeleton had arms clasped at the pelvis. The ribs and much of the spine were displaced and the position of the bones clearly shows that the tomb was an empty space. This burial disturbed an earlier adult, aged between 35 and 45 years and probably female, preserved in the form of a reduction 3902*; parts of this individual were still articulated although not in their original position.

T331 (Fig. 24)
Immediately to the north of T325 was another tomb with a reused marble slab [3883] at its head. The tomb was cut 3839 into the clay packing layer (2742). The grave contains the skeleton 3914*/(3915) of a juvenile aged between 12 and 15 years. The skeleton was on a west–east orientation, slightly crouched on the left side, as if the body was crammed into a tomb too small for it. The skeleton was complete, although poorly articulated due to post-mortem taphonomic processes deriving from burial within an empty space.

T311 (Fig. 25)
A north–south tomb was cut 3792 into the foundations of the narthex against [2328], destroying the marble pavement [2741] and [3794] of the narthex in two places. The narthex foundations [2776] and [2775] were used as the western and southern limits of the tomb, while [3795], a north–south mortared line of tile fragments acts as the eastern limit. To the north, the cut to [3794] seems to have acted as the northern edge. The earliest complete individual, 3799*, disturbed a previous burial as is evident by the reduction of bones 3814* pushed to the sides of the tomb by cut 3801, and the remains of an adult foot 3903* oriented south–north. 3799*/(3800) was the complete skeleton of an adult female of 25 to 35 years oriented north–south with arms crossed above the pelvis. The position of her jaw, pelvis and feet suggest that she was buried in an open space, perhaps with a head rest. The next burial was that of 3785*/(3786), an 11- to 15-year-old juvenile. The skeleton was oriented south–north with arms crossed above the pelvis. The burial slightly disturbed 3799* (cut = 3787). This burial is a particularly clear example of a shroud burial (Fig. 25): the clavicles are vertical, the scapulae are oblique, the pelvis has fallen, the upper body and legs are extremely compressed, and the feet are bound together. A fill layer (3784) containing substantial amounts of human bone was found above 3785*; probably the disturbed bones of the earliest occupants of the tomb thrown back on top of the shroud.

T330 (Fig. 26)
An isolated rectangular walled tomb constructed of a yellowish, degraded tufa and coursed tile and marble, was uncovered north of the fortification wall inside the narthex area. Intriguingly, this tomb does not follow the east–west orientation of the church or narthex, but is aligned upon a southwest–northeast axis perhaps in line with an earlier structure in the churchyard. The tomb consists of two southwest–northeast walls [3580] and [3606] constructed of coursed limestone and tufa blocks and re-used Roman bricks. Two Roman marble paving slabs [3645] and [3730] placed upright on a northwest–southeast axis mark the end of the grave. The tomb was cut 3982 into the clay preparation (3920) in front of the church, and cuts the western end of T333. All that survives of the earliest burial in the tomb are the lower legs of an adult on a west–east orientation 3946*/(3947). Presumably the tile headrest [3991] was laid down for this individual. 3946* provided a radiocarbon date of 1074 ± 27 BP or 890–1020 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-26149). 3946* was cut by the partially articulated skeleton of a 25- to 35-year-old probable male 3943*/(3944)/3945 on a west–east orientation, pushed to the south side of the tomb by later burials. Above lay 3932*/(3933), the partially articulated skeleton of a 30- to 40-year-old male on a west–east orientation, later pushed to the north side of the tomb. Above these burials lay a reduction 3910* which contained a minimum of three different individuals: one probable male aged between 30 and 40 years; one probable male aged between 35–45 years, and a male aged between 30 and 40 years. The reduction was disturbed by the grave cut 3913 of 3911*, an adult male aged between 35 and 45 years laid out in a supine position with arms clasped over pelvis on a W: E orientation. The skeleton was mostly complete, and the position of the bones confirms that it was buried within an empty space. A strip of lead (O1069) and a pig tooth were found in the burial fill (3912), but appear to be residual.

At some later point, two large blocks of limestone [3867] and [3868] were mortared to the flagstone pavement 2324 some 70 cm apart, immediately to the north of T328. [3867] is a particularly well preserved square block, with sides of 35 cm and a height of 52 cm. A circular hole containing lead was found in the centre, suggesting that they may have been some sort of column base. Although the dating and function of these blocks is unclear, they certainly pre-date the raising of the churchyard surface in the following period.

Finally, a deposit (3890) of hard dark brown clay was found to the south of the water feature and is dated by ceramics to between 800 and 1000 AD.

Discussion and phasing

The construction date of the narthex is unclear, but the radiocarbon results indicate that it must pre-date the late tenth century. Three samples were dated from separate tombs within the narthex area. A skeleton 3864* in T322 located in front of the side-door of the church provided a radiocarbon date of 1126 ± 29 BP or 780–990 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-26150). This tomb was overlaid by the later tile tomb T318 of an infant 3833* which provided a radiocarbon date of 1169 ± 27 BP or 770–970 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-25050). A sample was also obtained from 3946* in T330, a tomb in the north of the narthex area. This gave a radiocarbon date of 1074 ± 27 BP or 890–1020 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-26149). The radiocarbon dates suggest that burials in the narthex commenced in the ninth century, a moment when the interior of the church, at least, was given new liturgical fittings. There is also ninth-century elite occupation in Area A, and we might imagine that these walled tombs were used to bury its occupants. The surge of activity in the ninth century seen in burials, liturgical furnishing and elite housing indicate a significant reinvestment at Villamagna in this period, well before the estate was given over to the monastery.

Central Medieval Building and Burials

The central medieval period can be divided into three phases based on distinct changes in the spatial organisation of the church landscape. In the first, Central Medieval A (Fig. 27), a monastery was constructed to the north of the church. Very little survives from this phase in trench BI, though a few tombs were built in the area in front of the church. The subsequent period, Central Medieval B (Fig. 31), saw a shift in the spatial organization of the area in front of the church with the construction of a monumental porch and bell tower. An ossuary seems to have been added to the side of the bell tower at the same time, while burials in this period seem to be restricted to the area around the bell tower and outside the monastery in trench BII. The final phase, Central Medieval C (Fig. 35), is a series of later north–south burials, most of which are in trench BII.

Central Medieval A

Construction of monastery

The east–west walls [2033] and [2017], built of reused Roman bricks, blocks of pietra tartara and mortar, were constructed above [2422], the northern wall of the narthex, whose entrance may have remained open at this point. The raising of these walls was probably related to the construction of the L-shaped wall [4005], the western exterior wall of the monastery, which abuts [2033].

Tombs

T262
Within the area of the narthex, which was presumably still standing, we uncovered an east–west walled tomb (walls [2840], [3752], [3753]) (Fig. 28). The southern wall [2840] of mortared Roman tiles and re-used stone and architectural elements was cut at its western end by a later grave cut, as is the western wall of the tomb. The northern tomb wall, [3753], a poorly preserved wall of pietra tartara and degraded tufa, bonds with the eastern wall [3752]. These walls are all faced on the interior of the tomb, and it is clear from the rough nature of the southern face of [2840], that the tomb was cut 3690 from a much higher ground level. The bottom of the tomb was lined by spoliated pieces of Roman marble, 3754, which made a flat base for the tomb. These slabs covered (3884) a hard yellow clay layer found throughout the trench. A fragment of marble relief showing a bird, a pomegranate and an ionic capital was found in the wall of this tomb (AE1049).¹⁸

Inside this tomb were the partial remains of an adult 3688*/(3689). 3688* provided a radiocarbon date of 977 ± 27 or 997–1155 cal. AD (95% probability, OxA-24873). Only the distal end of the left femur, the tibia, fibula and some tarsals survived, due to the later insertion of 3685*/(3686)/3687, the burial of a 30- to 35-year-old adult female. Only the left pelvis and leg and right lower leg survive, and these are on a northwest–southeast orientation. Later, 3655*/(3656)/3657, a 35- to 45-year-old male was inserted; only part of the torso and pelvis survives. Another adult pelvis 3649*/(3650)/3651 lay above 3655*. It is difficult to be certain about the attribution of skeletons to this tomb, as the later graves and fortification wall obscure the stratigraphy. The tomb itself, however, seems to date to the central medieval phase rather than the early medieval phase, since it was cut in from a higher ground level. This is corroborated by the radiocarbon dating of the earliest individual in the tomb and the re-use of ninth-century liturgical sculpture in the tomb walls.

Burials outside the narthex

T328 (Fig. 29)
A further marble-lined walled tomb was cut 3926 into the clay pavement preparation (3927) to the north of T321. The tomb is rectangular in shape, its southern wall, [2902] consists of three inverted marble slabs, the eastern wall of a single marble slab [3750]; the northern wall [3751] has been slightly disturbed by later burials, and one slab survives in situ, another marble slab has turned horizontally. The construction cut 3680 for the eastern wall of the later bell tower cut away the tomb’s western wall. The tomb was covered by (3863), a lens of hard yellowish-brown clayish earth with plaster fragments. This presumably would have served as the cover to the tomb, and would have originally been plastered over. It is possible that the marble slabs were used as the interior facing of the tomb, whose real walls would have been [3862], an east–west mortared tile and stone coursed wall against which was laid [2902]. Similarly [3838], a short north–south rectangular mortared and cemented wall which abuts [2807], the foundation for the narthex, may be the exterior eastern wall for the north–south marble slab [3750]. Packing (3939) between the marble and these walls contains several fragments of Hayes 91C dating to the sixth or seventh centuries. An adult skeleton of a 30- to 40-year-old male was found in this tomb 3898*/(3899). 3898* gave a radiocarbon date of 1031 ± 28 or 900–1039 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-26151). The bones suggest that he was laid out in an empty space. 3900 disturbed at least two earlier adult males between 35–40 years and 30–40 years pushed to the north in the reduction 3901*.

T321
To the south another tomb probably should be attributed to the end of this phase. The tomb was cut into (3591), a stratum of black loose dirt with flecks of charcoal, lime, plaster and fragments of bone which contains fragments of ninth-century Forum Ware. It appears to use the east–west wall [2416] of the hydraulic feature as its southern limit, and to extend below the bell tower. The earliest articulated burial was 3894*/(3895)/3896, a probable female adult aged between 40 and 55 years. Laid out on a west–east orientation on top of a large piece of roof tile, only the left humerus, pelvis and femur and right tibia and feet remained. Above lay the articulated cervical vertebrae and ribs of 3891*/(3892)/3893, an adult skeleton on a west–east orientation. A reduction 3906* was found at the south end of the tomb, pushed against [2416]. The reduction 3906* contained bones from a probable male aged between 45 and 55 years, a probable female aged between 30 and 40 years, and a juvenile aged between fourteen and sixteen years. Presumably these bones can be reconciled with 3894* and 3891*. Above lay 3859*/(3860)/3861, a juvenile aged between twelve and fifteen years (Fig. 30) on a west–east orientation. The body was complete with the arms crossed over the chest. Three rings were found with this individual, two on the left hand (O1051, O1052) and one on the right (O1050). The cranium appears to lies below the foundation offset for the bell tower. 3859* provided a radiocarbon date of 930 ± 28 BP or 1027–1164 cal. AD (95% probability, OxA-26154).

Central Medieval B (Fig. 31)

The Porch and Bell tower

The destruction of the narthex was recognizable in the horizontal cuts (2527; 2528; 2529; 2530; 2531) to the major walls. No rubble from this destruction has been found, and this, in combination with the fact that [2422], [2369], [2328], [2411], and [2223] were all razed to an average level of -0.45 m, suggests the walls were cut as part of a general levelling of the area, presumably for the construction of the porch and the bell tower. This resulted in the ground level being raised by about 0.25–0.35 m above the paved surface.

Porch

The northern side of a monumental central porch abutting the façade of the church was uncovered, cut into the mortared pavement 3777. The porch consists of two piers, [2026] and [2055] (See Fig. 9, above). [2026] comprises a large monolithic polygonal finished limestone block with foundations of roughly squared limestone blocks and re-used Roman bricks and tiles. [2055] comprises a rectangular limestone block (1.03 m by 0.33 m) with foundations of roughly squared limestone blocks, and was partially covered by church repairs in the twentieth century. The construction cuts are 3825/(3826) and 2243/(2244) for [2055] and [2026] respectively. (2244) contained some sherds of medieval red-painted ware and coarseware. The piers and their foundations are bonded with and partly incorporate the northern wall [2373] of the late Roman porch by a hard purple mortar, identical to that used in the construction of the bell tower. [2373] appears to act as a reinforcing wall and this in conjunction with the polygonal shape of [2026] suggests that it supported an arch.

The parallel structures that must have existed to the south have not yet been identified, and it is likely that they were removed by the creation of the fortification wall.

Bell tower

The substructures of a bell tower (6.40 m x 6.40 m) lie to the west, aligned with the centre of the church facade and presumably the centre of the porch. The substructures were cut 2090 into (2094), a stratum of yellow clay containing small amounts of medieval pottery and the head of an iron nail. Below (2094) lay (2672), a stratum of mid-brownish yellow friable clayish soil with human bone, tile and mortar fragments; this was partially excavated. Two iron nails and a fragment of a bronze costume element (O590) were found in the fill, along with three fragments of glass dating to the tenth or eleventh century, and a considerable amount of Roman and medieval pottery.

Part of the external foundation trench 3680 was identified on the eastern side of the bell tower. It was filled by (3681), a deposit of loose brown sandy earth with rubble and mortar. Unfortunately, no pottery was found which would aid in dating it. The foundation trench disturbed T328. On the interior of the building, a four-sided foundation trench, was visible in 2092, filled by (2093). Three iron nails, a bronze stirrup finger ring (O214), a fragment of Roman statue (S30) and small amounts of medieval pottery were found in the fill.

The foundations of the bell tower were around 1.90m wide, forming four bonded walls of equal length [2041]=[2059], [2403], [2404], [2234]=[2405]. An exterior foundation offset [2414] was identified on the eastern side of [2041]. The foundations consisted of a facing of large irregular limestone boulders and ashlar blocks, infilled with spoliated marbles, small stones and a very hard blue powdery mortar. A fragment of mid-ninth century sculpture was found in the south face of [2403]. The three lowest courses of the southern wall [2091] are still standing and visible under the later fortification wall (Fig. 32). [2091] consists of a first course of reused marble and ceramic tiles sitting on the foundations; a second course of rectangular ashlar blocks; and a third course of large squared ashlar blocks. It is impossible to estimate the original height of the tower, although it is clear that the foundations were designed to carry a considerable weight. It is likely that the bell tower would have been divided into three or four levels, and adorned with bifora or trifora windows, in the same way as, for example, the bell tower of the Duomo of Anagni.¹⁹

These walls created an interior space of approximately 2.93 m square. Presumably this space was originally paved, given the surviving foundation offset [2182] in the north–east corner of the tower. There was at least one entrance into this interior space. On the eastern side, its location is recognisable in the later walls [2233], and [2042] which block a doorway in the centre of [2041]. There may have been a similar door on the western side, but the razing of the building to the penultimate course makes this impossible to determine.

Ossuary

At some later point, a rectangular structure was constructed against the northern foundations of the bell tower (Fig. 33). The eastern wall [2034] of irregularly coursed stones and thick mortar, 3 m in length and 1.25 m in width, reaches down to the limestone pavement 2063 and abuts [2041], the eastern wall of the bell tower. The western wall [2179] and northern wall [2131] were built, bonding to each other and abutting the northern wall of the bell tower [2041]. A rubble wall [2035] was constructed running east–west and divided the space into a southern half (2032)=(2177) and a northern half (2039)=(2178). These walls formed an underground ossuary, some 0.70 m below the level of the churchyard. It was filled with bones, predominantly crania and long bones. As no foundation cuts have yet been found for the ossuary, it is impossible to be certain about which phase it should be attributed to. The fact that T335 (see below) abuts [2179] supports the idea that the structure relates to this phase, and indicates that the ossuary predates the mid-twelfth century. However, it is also possible that [2179] and [2131] are part of an earlier feature, perhaps a churchyard wall, and that only outside this wall were burials permitted. In this reading, the eastern wall [2034] would be a later addition, probably from the late medieval period, which was reused in the construction of an ossuary. The upper contexts of the pits were also filled with collapsed rubble (2038) associated with the eventual destruction of the ossuaries and the bell tower.

T334
The partial skeleton of an adult female 2048* between 25 and 35 years was found in the southern half of the ossuary. The skeleton was laid out on a west–east axis, and was missing its lower parts. The phasing of this skeleton is uncertain. It probably should be associated with the ossuary, though it might represent an earlier grave cut into the pavement.

T335
A rectangular walled tomb was built up against the bell tower and the west wall of the ossuary (Fig. 34). The northern wall, [4262], made of re-used Roman tile, marble slabs and stone, abuts [2179], the western wall of the built ossuary, and is cut 4261 into the beaten earth surface 4170. The northern foundation wall of the bell tower [2041] was slightly cut to construct the tomb and was the tomb’s southern limit. It is not difficult to imagine that the tomb had a western wall abutting the bell tower, covered by the western limit of excavation. The limestone pavement 3539 forms the bottom of the tomb. Ten individuals have been identified in this tomb; analysis of the taphonomic processes indicates that this tomb was an empty space, perhaps originally covered by a piece of wood. Over time, the grave filled up with silt. There were no grave goods associated with any of the burials.

The earliest articulated individual 3536*/(3537) in the tomb was an adult female between 20 and 30 years with her left arm crossed over her chest, and right arm extended. 3536* disturbed a series of previous burials. The crania and long bones of four adult individuals were pushed to the south and east edges of the tomb in a reduction (3543), by 3538. The crania came from an adult male aged between 35 and 45 years, an adult female between 45 and 55 years, an adult female between 20 and 25 years, and an adult male between 30 and 40 years. Above was 3527*/(3528)/3529, a few fragments of the skeleton of a child aged between five and seven years. Next, 3524*/(3525)/3526, an adult female aged between 25 and 35 years was inserted into the tomb. The cranium and upper cervical vertebrae are displaced and turned to the left. The body was oriented west–east, the left arm flexed and the hand placed over the pelvis, the right arm was disarticulated. Above was 3509*/(3510)/3511, a probably female skeleton aged between fifteen and twenty years. The skeleton was largely complete, with the left arm flexed so that the hand lay on the neck, the right arm was crossed over the pelvis. Above was the partially-preserved grave 2541*/(2542)/2543, which contained a child, aged between 9 and 10 years: only a few bones survived. The final interment 4282*/(4283)/4284 was another child, aged between 7–8 years. The skeleton was missing the cranium and upper torso.

At present, it is impossible to link T335 stratigraphically with any of the other tombs. Typologically, it is very similar to the walled tomb T369, excavated in trench BII, outside the monastery and like it, postdates the construction of the ossuary. Radiocarbon dating gives a date of 968 ± 26 BP or 1017–1155 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-24966) for 3536*, which is very close to the date of 953 ± 27 BP or 1023–1155 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-24971) given for T369, which predated the tower. This strongly suggests that the tower itself must fall within this range of dates.

South of the bell tower

Several burials were found immediately to the south of the bell tower which we believe date to this period. However, the area was not fully excavated and it is possible that these burials pertain to a different phase. These graves appeared to cut into a hard yellowish-grey clay lens (2473), containing large amounts of human bone and ceramic, and a small pierced bronze disc (O438).

A tomb T126 containing several individuals built against the southern wall [2405] of the bell tower was exposed but not fully excavated. It is not clear whether this tomb would have been walled like T335 to the north. 2656* was the earliest skeleton identified, but was not excavated. The skeleton 2653*/(2654)/2655 of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years lay above it. The pelvis, legs and feet were excavated, the rest of the skeleton continued under the western section of the trench. The latest burial was that of 2650*/(2651)/2652. Only the lower legs survived, and it is unclear whether the remainder of the skeleton continued below the section.

To the south was another grave T118 cut into the yellow clay. It cannot be stratigraphically related to T126 but certainly predated the construction of the later cemetery wall [2081]. A large limestone block marked the eastern end of the tomb, either acting a headstone, or perhaps indicating that the tomb may have originally been walled. The skeleton 2615*/(2616)/2618 was that of an adult female aged between 40 and 50 years, oriented roughly southwest–northeast. Only the cranium and upper body survived: the arms were crossed. It is typologically similar to the graves found in the cloisters of the monastery dating to Central Medieval A, and on these grounds may predate T126.²⁰

Northern Wall

The entrance in the former narthex wall had certainly been blocked by the time that the porch and bell tower were constructed, perhaps even with the building of the monastery in Central Medieval A. This is confirmed by the dating of T374, a walled tomb on the north side of the narthex wall, which uses the blocked door [2325] as part of its southern wall.²¹ The tomb provided a radiocarbon date of 952 ± 26 BP or 1020–1160 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-24973), similar to that of the tomb post-dating the bell tower.

Central Medieval C (Fig. 35)

Towards the end of the central medieval phase, a later ‘earthen grave’ T002 on a north–south axis was dug north of the bell tower, into the earlier walled tomb T335. Only the lower legs and feet of an adult 4279*/(4280)/4281 survive; it seems likely that this grave is contemporary with the seventeen north–south graves found in BII, to the west and north of the lime kiln.

Discussion and phasing

Despite the lack of diagnostic material, the similarity in construction material and mortar suggests that the porch and bell tower are contemporary.²² Bell towers in Italy are a common phenomenon between the eleventh and late fourteenth century. A fragment of ninth-century medieval sculpture re-used in the south face of [2403] gives a terminus post quem for the bell tower. The bell tower is cut into (2672), which contained a large amount of Roman pottery, as well as some fragments of glass dating to the tenth or eleventh century. The radiocarbon sample for 3536* of 1010–1160 cal. AD (95% probability) provides a loose terminus ante quem for both the ossuary and bell tower, and it seems likely that both date between the late eleventh and early twelfth century. The bell tower of the cathedral of Anagni is of a similar date, and just as at Villamagna, was placed in front of the facade.

After this building programme, but not later than the mid-twelfth century, several walled tombs with multiple occupants including T335 were built in the area outside the monastery, as well as inside the church²³ and monastery cloister.²⁴

Late Medieval cemetery

The subsequent phase is demarcated by the construction of further rectangular walled tombs in the area in front of the church (Late Medieval A) and by the transformation of the area in front of the church to a huge cemetery consisting predominantly of burials in single earthen graves (Late Medieval B).

Late Medieval A

The ground level was raised by between 0.25–0.35 m for the construction of the porch and bell tower; the walled tombs were cut in from this level down to the flagstone pavement (Fig. 36). Eight have been definitively identified: T336, T337 and T338, which were emptied, rebuilt and reused in a later phase, T343 which contained three individuals, T339, which contained four consecutive inhumations, T187 which contained two individuals, tomb T340, which contained one individual and T216 which contained one individual. T336 and T337 were built in the interior of the destroyed narthex against [2422] and T343 was built inside the porch area. On the west side of the destroyed narthex, a row of rectangular walled tombs (T338, T339, T340, T216 and T187) abut the still partially standing narthex walls [2369] and [2328]. T340 and T216 abut the bell tower, and therefore postdate its construction. A further three possible walled tombs have been identified to the south of the bell tower, but this zone was not completely excavated and it is impossible to be certain about tomb type and phasing.

The tombs are on an east–west orientation, contain multiple burials, and are fairly uniform in size and depth. The walls consist of courses of roughly finished rectangular blocks of the local limestone, sometimes combined with brick or tile, and a crumbly white mortar. They are usually finished on the interior, sometimes plastered, and were cut down from ground level. Individuals were buried in an extended supine position with heads to the west and the feet to the east. After the first individual had been buried, the tomb was filled with earth and reopened at various points in order to insert additional individuals. These later interments disturbed the earlier burials. Disarticulated bones were retained within the tomb as the fill.

Although the sample size is small, the variety in age and gender of the individuals buried suggests that these tombs were used by the lay population and may even have been family plots. One individual, a female juvenile 2351*, had earrings on either side of the skull. Otherwise the individuals buried in this phase were devoid of grave goods or personal belongings associated with them.

T336, T337 and T338
As mentioned above, Tombs T336, T337 and T338 had two distinct phases of use, recognizable in the very different construction technique of the upper walls.²⁵ The lower east–west walls ([2099], [2100], [2101]) date to this phase and are made of blocks of limestone and dark white mortar, and they are actually some 10–15cm wider than the later phase of the tombs. An enigmatic north–south wall [3929] constructed in opus reticulatum appears to act as the divider between T336 and T337.

T336
This rectangular walled tomb was built by constructing an east–west wall [2099] and north–south wall [3929] against the church and narthex. The south face of [2099] is badly damaged due to later burial activity. No burials could be securely related to this tomb, although it is possible that some of the skeletons from the built tomb T62 above may belong here.

T337
Immediately west of T336, this rectangular walled tomb used the narthex walls for its western and northern limits; a southern wall [2100] and western wall [3929] were added. Although the tomb had been robbed out by a later pit, some of the tomb’s contents survived. A reduction of human bones 3909* containing bones from a minimum of seven individuals sat above a deposit (3930) containing a fill (2097)=(3928) of clay, mortar and dirt with fragments of bone and ceramic, and a bronze cylinder (O1060), a bronze button (O1136), and a fragment of bronze (O1077). These are probably related to this tomb, rather than T63 above.

T338
T338 lies immediately to the west of T337. This rectangular walled tomb used the narthex wall for its eastern limit, and the monastery outer wall for its northern limit. An east–west wall [2101] was added to form the southern limit. It is unclear whether an additional north–south wall was added to form the eastern limit of the tomb, or whether the tomb simply extended to the ossuary wall. It was excavated down to (2098), which contained visible pieces of human bone and presumably was the bottom of the tomb. The tomb was empty and must have been robbed out at some later point.

T339
T339 is immediately to the south of T338. It appears to contain 4 consecutive inhumations. Its surviving walls, the western wall [2382], eastern wall [2368] and southern wall [2367] sit on top of the flagstone pavement 2324. The walls bond and are constructed of alternating Roman brick and stone courses with thick beds of crumbly grey mortar. The northern tomb wall does not survive; it, like the northern ends of [2382] and [2368] were removed by 2250, the foundation cut for a later wall.²⁶

The first burial 2399*/(2400)/2401 was only partially preserved: it was missing its left side, the cranium, and the right arm. 2399*, a 14- to 16-year-old juvenile, was oriented west–east and placed against the south wall of the tomb. The feet were placed above each other, and the right arm was crossed at the waist. The burial was cut by 2390 to insert 2388*/(2389), an 18- to 22-year-old adult male. 2388* was lying partly on the right side, on a west–east orientation with the left arm flexed, and spine twisted. Much of the left side and lower legs are missing due to the insertion of 2380*/(2381)/2382, a 25- to 30-year-old male oriented west–east, the arms seem to have been crossed. The skeleton was missing the cranium, the right arm, the left lower arm and some vertebrae. The subsequent burial, 2351*/(2352)/2353, a 12- to 14-year-old juvenile appears to be the latest burial in this tomb (Fig. 37). The body was oriented west–east with the left foot placed over the right, the right arm crossed over the waist, and the left arm crossed over the pelvis. A bronze earring with two blue paste beads (O206) was found on the right side of the skull, and a matching blue paste bead (O322) was found on the right side of the skull; a button was also found in the fill. Pieces of bronze were also found below the right femur, and the right foot. Disarticulated bone which could not be associated with a particular individual was assigned to a general fill (2360). These burials were disturbed by T65 and T67.

T340
T340 is built to the south, and against T339. The northern wall [2367] is abutted by the western wall [2536], a crude wall (0.53 m long and 0.40 m thick) of poorly mortared stone blocks and re-used tile and bricks. [2536] abuts (3681), the foundation fill of the campanile. The southern wall, [2412], a slightly curved east–west wall (2.40 m long by 0.21 m thick) was built of roughly worked small blocks of yellow local tufa in crude courses with a loose light grey mortar. The eastern wall was cut away by later graves. Its walls cover the limestone pavement, 2324. The tomb contained a poorly preserved fragment of an adult cranium and left fibia of 2618*/(2619)/(2620). The tomb was later disturbed by T341, from the earthen grave phase.

T216
Immediately to the south, only a few pieces of this tomb’s wall survive. It uses [2412] as its northern wall, and the foundation [2414] of the bell tower as its western wall. For the southern wall, [2413] was added, although it only survives to a length of 0.78 m. [2413] has similar masonry to [2412]: roughly coursed limestone and local stone with pale grey crumbly mortar with small pebbles and dark grey inclusions. The tomb contained the partial skeleton of an adult 2972*/(2973)/(2974) oriented west–east. Only the cranium, shoulders and left humerus survive due to the insertion of the earthen grave T213.

T343
T343, a walled tomb, was built abutting the foundation [2373] of the porch, above and partly re-using the walls of T332 (Fig. 38). The northern [2344], western [2532] and southern walls [2345] are built of coursed tile and brick with a white-grey hard mortar, and are bonded to each other. The eastern wall [2533] consists of a large mortared limestone block, and abuts the other walls. The south wall [2345] was later patched with [2808], roughly mortared stone and rubble. A floor [3888] of re-used Roman tiles on a rubble preparation (3919) lined the bottom of the tomb.

Three individuals were found in this tomb, all on a west–east orientation: the earliest was 2593*/(2594)/2595, a 30- to 35-year-old adult female with right arm crossed, and the left hand on the pelvis. The skeleton was complete, although the cranium was damaged due to the insertion of later burials. Above was 2570*/(2571)/2572, an adult female between 25–35 years. The skeleton was largely complete, missing only the lower arms and hands. The position of the bones suggests that it decomposed in an open space, and was perhaps disturbed at some later point. Above was 2567*/(2568)/2569, the grave of an infant between 1.5 and 3.5 years. The skeleton was jumbled but complete, again probably because it decomposed in an empty space. There were no finds, although a small amount of medieval pottery was found in the general fill (2346)=(2566). The tomb was covered by the surface 2245.

A series of north–south tombs are probably contemporary with the walled tombs:

T108 was the grave 2578/(2577) of an adult male 2576* aged between 30 and 40 years, parallel to the porch pier [2026]. The skeleton oriented north–south, and was cut just below the pelvis.

Built against the east wall of the bell tower was T247, the grave 3517/(3516) of a juvenile 3515* aged between ten and thirteen years. The skeleton had the arms crossed over the chest, was laid out on a north–south orientation, and was cut below the pelvis.

T313 appears to be a north–south walled tomb, which is built against the eastern ossuary wall [2034], uses an earlier Roman wall [3809] of coursed stone and brick as its southern limit, and the wall [2382] of T339 as its eastern limit. Only the southern end of the tomb survives: it contained the burial 3812/(3811) of an adult 3810* oriented north–south. The feet and lower legs are all that survived, due to the insertion of later walls to the north.

T187
The walled tomb, T187 (Fig. 39), was built outside the narthex walls, in line with T338, T339, T340, T216 in the southern part of the trench. Further walled tombs may exist to its north, but excavations were abandoned in this area before this could be investigated. The tomb walls [2402], [2329], [2330] and [2331] sit on a layer of dark brown earth. The walls are uniformly constructed of coursed roughly squared tufa with a friable white mortar; they have been cut away by later graves, particularly the northern wall [2402] and southern wall [2330]. Three individuals were found in T187, however a large number of bones were found in the general fill (2827), suggesting that the grave may have contained more individuals. At the bottom of the grave was (2941), a compact yellow-brown clay layer with large quantity of tile, rubble and mortar fragments. This was unexcavated, and its similarity with a later fill (2870) may indicate that there were further burials below. The earliest burial excavated lies above (2941), and is that of 2925*/(2926), an 8- to 10-year-old child oriented west–east in the northwest corner of the tomb. The body was truncated; only the left half survives, the left hand was placed just above the pelvis. Above, also at the western end of the tomb was the north–south burial of an infant 2866*/(2867)/2868 who died at birth. The skeleton was in poor shape, and was truncated at the waist, the hands were placed over the pelvis. Above was the burial of 2869*/(2870), an adult male skeleton aged between 30 and 40 years, oriented west–east with arms crossed at the waist, left above right. Interestingly, the body was buried with the feet at the eastern end of the tomb, leaving a gap of 40 cm to the western limits. The fill (2870) unusually contained large amounts of tile and mortar. The grave cut 2871 disturbed both 2925* and 2866*.

Late Medieval Cemetery B

At some later point, the area in front of the church was given over completely to burials (Fig. 40). It seems likely that the bell tower was still standing, but that the porch had been destroyed.

Cemetery Enclosure

A series of walls ([2042], [2233] and [2081]) were built, which seem to have formed a western boundary wall to the cemetery. These walls are all on the same north–south alignment and are constructed of roughly dressed limestone, reused bricks and a mortar containing large clumps of hard, blue-violet mortar. [2042] and [2233] blocked the eastern doorway of the bell tower (Fig. 41). To the south, another wall [2081] of roughly coursed blocks was built against [2405], the southern wall of the bell tower and cut into a clay layer (2473).

At a later point, [2103], an east–west wall 2.50 m in length and 30 cm wide, was added to create a southern limit of the late churchyard, partly covering the earlier southern narthex wall [2411], [2223] and its blocked entrance [2410]. It is constructed in a post-Roman opus incertum, with small blocks of limestone fitted together with a dark white mortar. Its foundations [2409] consists of irregular large boulders, and is associated with the reorganization of the area in front of the church and the laying of a plaster surface 2395 in the southern sector of the trench. Its foundation cut 2263 cut several skeletons from Late Medieval B (2251* (T036), 2335* (T059), 2338* (T060), 2370* (T070), 2396* (T074)). It is bonded to the north–south wall, [2081] built in a similar opus incertum and foundations [2406]. On its west side, the foundation trench 2138/(2144) cut the earlier central medieval skeleton 2615* (T118) and yellow clay surface (2473). On the east side, the foundation trench 2407/(2408) was exposed, but not fully excavated. The construction of [2103] created a minor shift in the alignment of the graves, from that of the preceding period. The entrance to the churchyard was probably in the southeast corner, by the corner of the church. At some later point, this entrance was filled in with loosely mortared large stones [2089] (see Fig. 19, above), though this may represent a structure to the south of the wall. Alternatively, the entrance might have been located in the southwest corner, where there is a later infill [2274] of mortared irregular stones some 62 cm in length.

The construction of these walls suggests a reorganization of the churchyard space, perhaps contemporary with the destruction of the porch, in order to create an enclosing wall delimiting the western side of the cemetery. This churchyard wall seems to have incorporated the eastern wall of the bell tower; it is unclear whether the bell tower was still standing at this point. The construction of the cemetery wall created a firmly enclosed yard in front of the church within which the majority of the graves were found. A small number of graves were found outside the western cemetery wall, and it is possible that there are further graves from this period outside our area of excavation.

Cemetery

354 graves have been uncovered from this phase. It was generally impossible to determine distinct grave cuts, since in nearly all cases the graves were intercut or disturbed by later activity. Moreover, the burials were both covered by and cut into layers of cemetery earth containing material re-deposited from underlying strata of pre-existing buildings or occupation layers. The later construction of the fortification wall [2001] divided the graves of this phase into a northern and southern zone. The stratigraphy is further complicated by the presence of earlier, still partially standing, walls which in effect have created different zones of non-contiguous graves. Thus, for example, graves north of the porch and within the area of the earlier narthex cannot be linked stratigraphically to other burials in BI.

Nonetheless, most burials can be placed within a local and relative chronological ordering. For the purpose of the stratigraphic report, tombs from this phase are placed within ‘burial sequences’, which are based on the cutting of one burial by another in non-contiguous topographical zones of the cemetery. Less frequently, burials were simply superimposed at a higher elevation, and overlay in such a way that one must be later than the other. In the following description of ‘burial sequences’, it is noted when later burials cut or disturbed an earlier burial. If a skeleton is incomplete, it should be presumed that this is due to later graves unless otherwise stated.

Burials north of [2001]

In the north of trench, graves were cut into an earth deposit (2489) containing large amounts of human bone, medieval ceramic, glass and metal fragments, presumably equivalent to (2287) in the southern sector of the trench (see below). Two bronze finger rings with bevels (O542 and O757), and a bronze hanging grip (O847) possibly re-used as a pendant were found in the fill; these presumably were originally associated with buried individuals.

Sequence 1
Sequence 1 lies in the northwest corner of the trench, between the walled ossuary and the raised tomb C. Cut into T339 was T65, the grave of 2348*/(2349)/2350, a 3- to 5-year-old child with arms crossed over the waist. The skeleton was more or less complete, aside from some truncation to the lower limbs caused by the grave cut 2359 for T67 2357*/(2358). 2357* was the disturbed skeleton of an infant who died between birth and six months. The infant was oriented west–east with the right hand placed on the pelvis, and was disturbed by the construction of a later wall [2031] (see below).

Sequence 2
Sequence 2 lies immediately to the south of Sequence 1, but cannot be related directly. The earliest burial was T341 the grave of a 20- to 30-year-old adult male 2612*/(2613)/2614.The skeleton was complete, oriented west–east and the arms are crossed over the chest (Fig. 42). A round iron buckle (O439) was found in the fill (2613). T341 cuts both the skeleton 2618* from T340 and the wall [2367] of T339 and T340, and therefore can be securely dated to this burial phase.

T208 lies to the south of and parallel to wall [2412]. It contains the partial torso and lower legs of an adult 2942*/(2943)/2944 of undeterminable sex on a west–east orientation. It cuts and postdates the north–south burial 2576* (T108) which probably goes with the walled tombs in the first part of this phase.

T213 lies immediately to the south, disturbing the walled tomb T216. It was cut into wall [2416] and given its location probably post-dates T208. The grave 2963*/(2964)/2965 is a simple earthen grave containing the cranium and upper torso of an adult between 20 and 30 years on a southwest–northeast orientation. The left arm was crossed.

T212 lies to the south. The grave 2960*/(2961)/2962 is a simple earthen grave containing the pelvis, legs and some vertebrae of a 2.5- to 4-year-old child. The skeleton was on a west–east orientation and was severely truncated by later graves.

T210 lies above T212. A severely truncated grave 2951*/(2952)/2953 containing only a few articulated ribs of a juvenile on a west–east orientation.

T180 lies above T213, T208, T210 and T212. The grave 2842*/(2843)/2845 contains the complete skeleton of a 14- to 17-year-old male oriented west–east with arms crossed over the chest; the cranium has fallen slightly to the left side. Two bronze rings (O635) were found corroded together in the fill (2843). One ring is a plain band, and the other has a stone; they were in situ on the left hand.

T326 lies above, and slightly to the north of T180. The grave 2634*/(2635)/(2636) contains the disturbed skeleton of a 1- to 3-year-old infant. The body was oriented west–east, and was missing parts of the left upper body.

T100 lies above T180, slightly to its south and cut into the earlier tomb wall [2413]. The earthen grave 2540/(2539) contained the complete skeleton 2538* of an adult male aged between 30 and 35 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the arms were crossed above the pelvis.

Sequence 3
T165 lies immediately to the south of T210 and T212 and was cut into the foundation of the narthex and T343. The simple earthen grave 2792*/(2793)/2794 contains the slightly disturbed skeleton of a 4- to 6-year-old child; parts of the cranium, arms and feet are missing. The body was oriented west–east; the feet were placed close together and the arms crossed at the waist. It probably pre-dates T212 in Sequence 2.

T155 lies immediately to the south, and above T165. The simple earthen grave 2760*/(2761)/2762 contains the complete skeleton of a 15- to 17-year-old female juvenile oriented west–east (Fig. 43). The skeleton was laid out in a supine extended position with the feet placed over each other and the arms crossed at the waist. A fragment of iron was found in the fill. The tomb probably cuts 2893* (T195) in Sequence 4.

Sequence 4
Sequence 4 comprises a series of earthen graves which lie above the walled tomb T328 from the early medieval period. The earliest burial was T191, an earthen grave 2549/(2548) containing a partial skeleton 2547* of an adult. All that remained were three articulated left ribs on a west–east orientation.

T327 was cut into T191: the earthen grave 2544*/(2545)/2546 contained the right humerus, scapula, some ribs and left leg of an indeterminate adult on a west–east orientation. Above the leg of 2544*, was T223, the extremely poorly preserved grave of 2994*/(2995)/2996 , an infant.

Above lay T195, a grave containing the articulated skeleton of a 40- to 50-year-old adult male 2893* laid out on a SSW–NNE orientation with arms crossed. A skull lay at his feet and on his chest were the disarticulated remains of three other individuals: 2894*, a 5- to 7-year-old child, 2895*, a 7- to 10-year-old child, 2896*, a 40- to 50-year-old adult female. The grave fill (2897)/2898 contained an iron nail.

Above lay T207, an earthen grave 2938*/(2939)/2940 containing an 8- to 9-year-old child. The skeleton was oriented west–east with the legs flexed and the left arm on the pelvis. The right arm was missing and the cranium has also been displaced from later activity.

Above lay T206, the poorly preserved grave 2935*/(2936)/2937 of an infant of 6–12 months. The remains are fragmentary, but the body appears to have been oriented west–east with flexed legs.

Sequence 5
Another series of simple earthen graves was found immediately to the south of Sequence 4, and postdating the north–south burials T247 and T328. T244 seems to be the earliest; the earthen grave 3503*/(3504)/3505 contains part of the cranium of an infant, its positioning indicates that the infant was oriented west–east.

To the south, was T248, containing 3518*/(3519)/3520, pushed up against the earlier tomb wall [2902]. 3518* was a skeleton of a child oriented west–east, missing its right side, cranium and legs.

Above was T201, a simple earthen grave 2916*/(2917)/2919 containing the cranium and upper vertebrae of a 20- to 30-year-old possible female. The skeleton was laid out in a west–east orientation and above the wall [2902] of an early medieval tomb.

T200 lay above: the disturbed earthen grave 2913*/(2914)/2915 contained the cranium of a 6–9 month infant.

Sequence 6
Immediately to the south was another sequence of earthen graves. Cut into (3591) is a multiple tomb identified by its construction cut 3599, and to the north, by the partially preserved east–west wall [3838]. T344 is the earliest burial: 3664*, the skeleton of an adult male between 30–35 years on a west–east orientation. The skeleton was missing its cranium, left torso and femur, and lower right arm. In the fill (3665) were two bronze finger rings (O833; O834). 3664* was cut 3627 to insert T345, 3625*/(3626), the partial skeleton of a 30- to 40-year-old probable female. The skeleton was on a west–east orientation and was pushed against the side of the grave cut 3599. Only the cranium and right torso survives: these are all sharply cut by later burial activity. To the north was T291, a poorly preserved grave 3697*/(3698)/3699 containing the tibiae and patellae of an adult in a supine position on a west–east orientation. Above was T276: it contained 3628*/(2629)/2630, the partial remains (left shoulder and fibula) of a 20- to 30-year-old adult on a west–east orientation. Above was T268: only a small part survived, 3595*/(3596)/3597, the ankle bone of an adult. T346 appears to be the latest burial in this plot: it contained 3600*/(3601)/3602, the poorly conserved but complete skeleton of a 40- to 50-year-old probable female. The skeleton was laid out with arms crossed on a west–east orientation. A humerus from an earlier burial was found upright between the two wrists of 3600*.  A great deal of plaster was found over the pelvis and in the fill (3601), and it is possible that the entire burial was covered in plaster (Fig. 44). A reduction 3598* of bones was found at the west end of the grave, above the cranium and torso of 3600*. It contained fragments from a child of between 3–6 years, an adult female between 30–45 years, a 20- to 30-year-old probable female, as well as pieces of another adult. Presumably some of these bones could be reconciled with the other burials.

This multiple burial plot seems to have been abandoned subsequently, and the area given over to single burial plots. In the north was T255: the grave 3555/(3554) contained the partial skeleton 3553* of an adult oriented west–east. The skeleton is missing the cranium, right arm, pelvis and right femur. The lower lumbar column displays D.J.D.²⁷

Above was T250, the grave of 3533*/(3534)/3535, containing an adult, probably female, laid out in a supine extended position on a west–east orientation. Only the legs, right pelvis, left scapula and distal part of the humerus survive. T202 lay above cut into the foundation of the bell tower; it contained the western part of the grave 2919*/(2920)/2921. Only the upper part of the skeleton survives: it was truncated below the arms due to later grave activity. The skeleton was an 18- to 22-year-old female with arms crossed on a west–east orientation.

T202 was cut 2901 to insert T196, an earthen grave parallel to T195; the west–east grave 2899*/(2900)/2901 contained an adult female between 40–50 years with the right arm crossed over the chest; the left arm and ribs were missing. The grave lay above the earlier tomb wall [2902] and half the body had fallen down c. 10 cm below the level of the wall. A coin (C151) dating to the fourteenth century was found in the fill (2900).

Cut into 2899* was T189, one of the latest burials in this area. T189, an earthen grave, contained 2875*/(2876)/2877 a female aged between 30–40 years oriented west–east. The skeleton is laid out with the right arm crossed over the waist, and the left on the chest and may have been wrapped in a shroud. A bronze object (O657) and iron nail was found in the fill (2876).

To the south was another cluster: above 3600* was T252, the burial 3544*/(3545)/3546 of a 5- to 6-year-old child. Only the pelvis and legs of the skeleton, together with a few ribs and vertebrae, survived; it was oriented west–east.

Above and parallel to T189 was T119, the disturbed grave 2621*/(2622)/2623 of a 25- to 35-year-old female oriented west–east. Much of the torso is missing, as well as both arms, the right pelvis and femur due to the later insertion of T166 (see below).

Above T321 was T264, the west–east grave 3581*/(3582)/3583 of a 25- to 35-year-old adult female with crossed arms. The lower legs, skull and upper torso are missing due to the later insertion of T258, the west–east grave 3562*/(3563)/3564 of an adult. Only the right leg and left lower leg survive.

T270 lay above, containing the west–east grave 3500*/(3501)/3502 of an adult. Only part of the right arm and some ribs survived. It was cut by 2999 for the insertion of T224: the west–east grave 2997*/(2998) of a 30- to 40-year-old adult male. The skeleton was complete, with the right arm crossed and the left on the pelvis.

Above was T184, an earthen grave 2854*/(2855)/2856 on a different orientation (southwest–northeast) to the others in this area. The skeleton 2854* was of a 15- to 17-year-old juvenile; only the right ribs and right lower legs survive.

T112 lay above and consisted of a west–east grave 2590*/(2591)/2592 of a 35- to 45-year-old adult male. The skeleton was missing its left leg and was laid out with crossed arms, right over left. Above 2590* and cut into 2621* was T166 which contained the west–east grave 2606*/(2607)/2608 of a 20- to 30-year-old adult male. The skeleton was complete; the right arm was placed over the left arm. Above and parallel to wall [2416] was T111, the grave 2587*/(2588)/2589 of a 2- to 3-year-old child with crossed arms. The skeleton was more or less complete, but the bones were poorly preserved.

Sequence 7
Sequence 7 is another cluster of earthen burials immediately south of the wall [2416] of the hydraulic feature; [2416] appears to have stood partially above ground. Some graves in this cluster have been cut, or run under, the later fortification wall [2001]. The earliest appears to be T221, a grave 2990/(2989) containing the articulated right fibula and tibia of a juvenile 2988* on a west–east orientation. Above, and perhaps the same tomb, was T217, the upper portion of an earthen grave 2977/(2976) containing the upper ribs and vertebrae of a juvenile 2975*. It is possible that 2988* and 2975* are the same individual. Above was T214, an earthen grave 2968 containing 2966*, a 25- to 35-year-old probable female with the left arm crossed onto the chest, on a southwest–northeast orientation. The skeleton was missing the cranium, lumbar column, right arm, pelvis and femur. A bronze finger ring (O695) was found in the fill (2967). T214 was cut for the insertion of T204, another earthen grave 2930/(2929) containing the skeleton 2928* of a 30- to 40-year-old male. The cranium, right pelvis and lower arms are missing, but the skeleton was otherwise complete, and laid out on a southwest–northeast orientation in a supine extended position with arms crossed. Above was T192, the poorly preserved grave 2886/(2885) of an adult 2884*, cut by T188. All that survives of the skeleton is the left humerus and scapula pushed against the wall [2416] on a west–east orientation. Above, T188 (Fig. 45) appears to be one of the latest burials in this cluster, and was cut quite clearly on its right side by 2068, the construction cut for the later fortification wall, and to the west by the cut 2071 for a later ossuary pit. The earthen grave 2874 contained the skeleton 2872* of an adult male oriented west–east with the left arm crossed over the chest. A bronze circular fibula (O659), a bronze fragment (O666) and a piece of worked marble (AE921) were found in the fill (2873). The fibula was found immediately south of the right foot. To the northeast of T188, was T125, another late grave. The grave 2649/(2648) contained the partial skeleton of a 6- to 9-month-old infant 2647*, cut into wall [2416].

Further east is another small cluster of graves: the earliest is T284, an earthen grave cutting into the narthex wall [2807]. The grave 3660/(3659) contains the skeleton 3658* of a 20- to 30-year-old female on a west–east orientation, with the right hand on the pelvis. The cranium, left torso and femur are missing. Above was T249, a poorly preserved earthen grave 3521*/(3522)/3523 containing the skeleton of a 7- to 8-year-old child. The skeleton was oriented west–east, the upper body was very disturbed and the cranium was missing. Above and cut by T204 to the west, was T209, another earthen grave 2948*/(2949)/2950 containing the skeleton of a 1.5- to 2.5-year-old, the cranium, left tibia and feet are missing. The skeleton was on a west–east orientation with flexed arms and legs. A small bronze object (O746) was found in the fill (2949).

Immediately to the south and above T221 lay T169, a simple earthen grave (2805)/2806, cut and covered by the fortification wall [2001]. The grave contained the lower limbs of an adult 2804* on a southwest–northeast orientation. Above lay T168, a simple earthen grave (2802)/2803 containing a 20- to 30-year-old adult female 2801*. The cranium and right torso of the skeleton lie under the later wall; the right lower legs are also missing. The body has the left arm crossed and the legs placed closely together, it is on a southwest–northeast orientation. To the east of T168, was T190, the grave of 2878*/(2879)/2880 cut into the foundation [2807] of the narthex. All that survives is the partial upper torso of a 5- to 7-year-old child on a west–east orientation. 2878* was probably cut by the insertion of T099, an earthen grave (2522)/2523 disturbed by the construction of the fortification wall. The grave contained the partial skeleton 2521* (Fig. 46) of a 30- to 35-year-old adult male on a southwest–northeast orientation. The layout of the body is strange: the spine is twisted, and the legs are flexed and splayed, with the right leg descending down vertically. It is unfortunate that the cranium and right arm are under the later fortification wall which makes study of the complete grave difficult, but it appears that if this individual was thrown into the grave. A bronze buckle (O58) was found just below the pelvis in the fill (2832). 

Burials north of the porch (Sequence 8)
North of the porch, within the narthex walls is another cluster of graves cut into a layer (2519) of hard dark orangish-brown clay with large amounts of mortar and human bone, but very little ceramic. The earliest grave is the multiple tomb T300, within which the earliest articulated burial is 3727*/(3728), the fragmentary ribs of an adult; the grave was cut 3729 into a series of earlier burials, represented in a fill layer (3779)=(3719) containing large amounts of human bone, including four crania as well as large amounts of tile and mortar. 3727* was cut by 3758 to insert 3756*/(3757), the complete skeleton of a 15- to 16-year-old juvenile, oriented west–east with the left hand on the waist, and the right hand on the chest. The head has fallen to the right and the bones in the chest region have collapsed, suggesting that it was buried in an open space.

T310 was cut 3776 into (3779) and consists of the lower legs of an adult 3774*/(3775) on a north–south orientation. T310 appears to pre-date the construction of T062 from the late medieval period, and should with T300 perhaps be dated to the central medieval period.

Subsequently, the burials appear to be roughly laid out in two rows moving away from the church. In the row closest to the church, T253 was in the northeast corner between the church and T062, cut 3549 into T300; it contained 3547*, a 40- to 50-year-old adult male on a west–east orientation with the left arm crossed over the waist. The right side of the body was very disturbed, presumably by later activity, but no bones appeared to be missing. A bronze brooch with an iron cross (O779) was found in the fill (3548). T147 was immediately to the south, and contained 2732*/(2733)/2734, the skeleton of a 20- to 30-year-old adult oriented west–east with crossed arms. The skeleton was severely disturbed, with only the long bones in place, and it was impossible to sex the body. The disturbance to both T253 and T147 suggests that both were disturbed at some later point, perhaps by a pit.

The next row lay immediately to the west, bounded by the earlier narthex wall and the earlier T063. T286 appears to be the earliest grave in this row; cut 3676 into a layer of clay, it contained 3674*/(3675) the disturbed skeleton of a 40- to 50-year-old adult male. The skeleton was on a west–east orientation, but has been disturbed by later burials and only the left side of the body survives. Above, and cut into 3673, was T286; it contained the skeleton 3671*/(3672) of a 30- to 40-year-old male on a west–east orientation. The skull, arms and left femur and pelvis are missing due to later graves, and the body was pushed up against the foundation of the porch. Above and cut 2668 into 3671*, was T128, an earthen grave containing 2666*/(2667) the complete skeleton of a 40- to 50-year-old male on a west–east orientation, with the right arm crossed and the left hand on the pelvis. T123 lies to the east, and was cut 2640 into the same clay layer; it contains the skeleton 2638* of a 30- to 40-year-old female oriented west–east with crossed arms, the left above the right. The lower limbs were cut and removed by a pit in the subsequent phase. An iron nail and bronze fragments were found in the fill (2639). T106 cut 2565 both T286 and T128; it contained the complete skeleton 2563* of a twelve to fourteen year juvenile with the arms crossed over the ribs, the right above the left. Some bones from a 1.5- to 3.5-year-old child were found in the fill (2564).

Porch area (Sequence 9)
Sequence 9 is immediately to the south of, and parallel to, the tombs in the area of the earlier porch, and consists of a series of earthen graves piled on top of each other. The earliest is T342, a probable earth grave cut into the foundation [2807] of the narthex. The grave 3661*/(3662)/3663 contains the partial skeleton of a 25- to 35-year-old adult female oriented west–east with the arms crossed over the waist. The legs are missing, due to the later insertion of T273 above, and slightly to the east. Earlier bones were placed around the head (3662), and it may have been a burial plot. T273 was a simple earth grave 3618/(3617) containing the complete skeleton 3616* of a 30- to 40-year-old adult female oriented west–east with the arms crossed over the waist. T269 was directly above, and contained the grave 3603*/(3604)/3605 of a 9- to 11-year-old juvenile. The skeleton was complete, only missing the upper cranium, and oriented west–east with arms crossed above the waist. Above was the poorly preserved T260, containing the grave 3568*/(3569)/3560 of an adult. Only the femur, fibula and foot survive, pushed against the side of the grave cut. Above, and to the west, was T171, an earth grave 2812*/(2813)/2814 containing the partial skeleton of a 40- to 50-year-old probable female. The skeleton was cut by 2800 at the pelvic region, and only the upper portion survives; the skeleton was oriented west–east with arms crossed over the waist. Cut into T171, was T167 which contained the grave 2798*/(2799)/2800 of a 40- to 50-year-old adult male. The skeleton was complete, and oriented west–east with the right arm crossed and the left hand resting on the pelvis. Slightly to the southeast was T148, an earthen grave 2737/(2736) cut by 2419, the construction cut for the later renovations of the church door. The skeleton 2735* was a 30- to 40-year-old skeleton of indeterminate sex oriented west–east with the left arm crossed over the waist, and the right hand over the chest. The later cut has removed its lower legs and right femur. T152 post-dates both T148 and T171 and abuts a piece of marble placed on its side. The grave 2753 contained the skeleton  2751* of a 1- to 3-year-old infant, and was relatively complete though the bones are not well preserved. The body was laid out in a supine extended position with the arms flexed on a west–east orientation. Some traces of bronze were found in the fill (2752). T105 layabove T148; the earthen grave 2560*/(2561)/2562 contained a 7- to 9-year-old child oriented west–east with arms crossed. The fill (2562) contained green-azure glass from the eleventh–thirteenth centuries. The skeleton was missing its lower legs due to the later insertion of T096 to the west. T096 contained 2507*/(2508)/2509 the skeleton of a 14- to 18-year-old juvenile oriented west–east. The lower limbs do not survive due to a later construction cut; the skeleton was laid out with arms crossed over the waist. Some small bronze pieces were noted in the fill (2508).

Perhaps contemporary with T105 is T159, an earthen grave on a slightly different orientation which is cut into T343, and post-dates the bulk of the burials in this sequence. T159, contains 2772*/(2773)/2774; the skeleton of an adult female was missing the cranium but otherwise complete, and was laid out on a southwest–northeast orientation, with the arms crossed. A bronze ring with a hexagonal bezel (O556), a blue glass bead (0555), and fragments of bronze were found in the fill (2773). T159 pre-dates T155, in Sequence 3.

Sequence 10
Three poorly preserved infant burials were uncovered to the east of this group of burials, next to the church facade. The graves are cut into the earlier tomb wall [2535] and porch [2373]. However, the nineteenth-century remodelling of the church and the cut for the entrance portal mean that we cannot establish stratigraphically the relationship between these graves and those in the central churchyard. T093 is the closest to the church and is a simple cut 2500/(2499) on a north–south orientation containing the jumbled skeleton of an infant 2498* who died between birth and 1.5 years. The grave was cut for the reconstruction of the church door. To the northwest was T094 cut in  [2373], containing the grave 2501*/(2502)/2503 of a 1- to 2-year-old infant. Only the fragmentary cranium survives due to the insertion of T092 above. T092 contains the west–east burial of 2490*/(2491)/2492, the partial skeleton of an infant aged between birth and 1.5 years with the right arm flexed. The lower torso and legs are missing.

Immediately to the north, were two further graves cut into [2373], the foundations of the porch. T044 was the southernmost grave and contained two individuals; the earliest 2284*/(2285)/2286 was the skeleton of a 20- to 30-year-old male. The lower half of the body and lower arms was cut away by later graves, but the body was oriented west–east. Textile fragments (O174) as well as pieces of bronze and glass were found in the fill (2285). T044 appears to have been re-opened at a later date to insert another burial. 2284* was cut 2277 for the skeleton 2275* of an 11- to 14-year-old juvenile. The skeleton was complete, with hands crossed over the pelvis, and the cranium had fallen to the south. A worked bone ring (O145) was found in the fill (2276).

T043 was immediately to the north, and contained 2273*, the skeleton of a 35- to 45-year-old male (Fig. 47). The skeleton was laid out with hands crossed over the pelvis on a west–east orientation. The body seems crammed into the space, as is attested by the flexing of the right leg. There were no finds in the fill (2248)/2247.

Sequence 11
To the south of Sequence 9 is another cluster of burials. The earliest seems to be the earthen grave T293; it contains the partial grave 3704*/(3705)/3706 of a 25- to 35-year-old female laid out on a southwest–northeast orientation; only the cranium, left scapula and humerus are preserved. Above was T245, the earthen grave 3506*=3806*/(3507)/3508 of a 30- to 35-year-old male laid out with crossed arms on a west–east orientation. The right torso, cranium, and left foot are missing due to later cemetery activity and modern works on the church. To the west was T193, the west–east grave of an adult female aged between 30 and 40 years. The body was laid out with the left arm crossed over the chest; the cranium, upper torso, right arm, and feet are missing. T194 lay above and was cut 2892 into T293, T245, T193; it contained the west–east burial of a 35- to 45-year-old male 2890* (Fig. 48). The skeleton was complete; the arms were crossed. Two bronze buckles (O667, O668) and an iron nail fragment were found in the fill (2891). T183 and T153 lay above. T183 contained 2851*/(2852)/2853, the west–east skeleton of a 7- to 11-year-old child with the upper body turned onto its left side; the arms were crossed on the chest. T153 lay slightly to the south; it contained the west–east grave 2754*/(2755)/2756 of a child. Only the cranium, right arm and some of the upper torso survived due to the insertion of T149 above. T149 was parallel to T148 (Sequence 9) and contained the earthen grave 2738*/(2739)/2740 of a 20- to 30-year-old male on a west–east orientation. The skeleton was missing the skull, but otherwise was complete; the hands were crossed on the pelvis. A bronze ring with a squared head (O558) and lots of bronze fragments were found in the fill (2739). T146 lay above, the grave 2731/(2730) contained the poorly preserved skeleton 2729* of a 2- to 3-year-old child. The bones were quite jumbled, but it is clear that the body was on a west–east orientation.

Sequence 12
Sequence 12 lies to the west of Sequence 11. T287 is a west–east earthen grave 3679/(3678) cut into the narthex foundation [2807] containing the partial skeleton 3677* of a 25- to 30-year-old adult male. The skeleton was missing the cranium, lower arms and feet. T277 was cut into T287; it was a west–east earthen grave 3636/(3635) containing the skeleton of an 8- to 9-year-old child 3634*. The cranium was missing; the skeleton was laid out with the right leg slightly flexed; the left arm was crossed and the right placed over the chest. There were lots of plaster fragments in the fill (3635). The western part of T277 was cut by T252 from Sequence 6. T199 was above, it contained the west–east grave 2912/(2911) of a 5- to 7-year-old child 2910*. The skeleton was missing its right torso and arms, but was otherwise complete; the left hand was placed over the pelvis. A small piece of iron (O676) was found in the fill (2911).

To the south, and above T275 from Sequence 13, was T224 (Sequence 6). Above was T220, the poorly preserved grave 2987/2986 of a 30- to 40-year-old probable male 2985*. Only the cranium and a few vertebrae survive due to the subsequent insertion of T219. T219 consisted of the west–east earth grave 2983/(2982) of a 15- to 20-year-old male 2981* with arms crossed. Parts of skull, the humeri, lower legs and left femur are missing. Above was T172, the west–east grave 2817/(2816) of a 13- to 16-year-old juvenile 2815*. Only the skull, humeri, and some ribs survive showing the skeleton was originally laid out in a supine position, probably with crossed arms.

Above and cut into T172 and T199 was T157, the west–east grave 2768/(2767) of a 35- to 45-year-old male 2766*. The skeleton was complete with the right hand placed on the pelvis, and the left on the chest. Fragments of bronze were found in the fill (2767). T157 pre-dates T166 in Sequence 6. To the north were two later infant burials. T173 is the west–east grave 2820/(2819) of a 6- to 9-month-old infant 2818*; the skeleton was in poor condition and only the upper part survives. The infant was laid out with arms crossed over the chest. T160 is the west–east grave 2782/(2781) of a 6- to 18-month-old infant 2780*. The skeleton was disturbed, and missing several of the long bones; the legs were flexed and crossed at the ankles.

Sequence 13
T319 lay to the east of T324; the earth grave 3852/ (3851) contained the skeleton 3850* of an adult male aged between 35 and 45 years on a west–east orientation. The arms and cranium were missing.  Immediately above T319 was T317: the earthen grave 3832/(3831) contained the skeleton 3830* of an adult female aged between 35–44 years on a west–east orientation. The skeleton was missing the right femur and cranium; the hands were placed on the chest. T324, which lies to the west against the earlier wall [2909], cut 3879 both T319 and T317, and the southern wall [3580] of T330. The earthen grave contained the skeleton 3877*/(3878) of an adult female aged between 45 and 55 years, buried on a north–south orientation. The lower limbs are missing and the skeleton has been disturbed. The arms were crossed over the chest.

T279 lay above T324, using the earlier wall of the narthex [2909] as the western tomb limit: the earthen grave 3644/(3643) contained the skeleton 3642* of an adult, probably male, aged between 30 and 35 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast, and laid out with crossed arms. The cranium and much of the left side were missing. T198 lay immediately above: the earthen grave 2908/(2907) contained the skeleton 2906* of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast, and was laid out with the arms crossed at the waist.  A small piece of heavily corroded bronze (O675) was found in the fill (2907). Parallel to 2906*, and possibly part of the same burial row, was T197. Very little of this grave 2905/(2904) survived:  it contained the lower legs of a skeleton 2903* of an adult. T164 lay above T198: the grave 2791/(2790) contained the skeleton 2789* of a 12- to 13-year-old juvenile. Only the lower right leg survived. T163 lay above, and slightly to the north of T279: the earthen grave 2788/(2787) contained the skeleton 2786* of a an adult male aged between 25 and 35 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. The arms and the right torso, pelvis and femur were missing. A small circular bronze buckle or loop  (O589) was found near the hip, suggesting that this individual was buried clothed. A small lead disc (O641) was also found in the fill (2787). T140 lay above T163: the grave 2711/(2710) contained the skeleton 2709* of a child aged between two and four years. The skeleton was missing its lower legs, but otherwise complete. The legs were slightly crouched and the hands placed over the pelvis.A fragment of bronze was found in the fill (2710). T161 lay above T163 and T164: the grave 2779/(2778) contained the partial skeleton 2777* of an adult female oriented west–east. Only parts of the left side of the skeleton survive.

Sequence 14
T320 lay to the southeast, abutting the foundations [3803] of the late Roman porch and cut into the eastern wall [3730] of T330. The earth grave 3856/(3854) contained the skeleton 3854* of an adult on a west–east orientation. Only the right side of the torso survived; the right arm was crossed over the waist. T314 was cut 3829 into both T320 and T317; it contained the skeleton 3827*/(3828) of an adult on a west–east orientation. Only the left scapula, humerus and lower leg survived. A square block at the east end of the tomb may be a footstone. T306 lay immediately above; the grave 3761/(3760) contained the complete skeleton 3759* of an adult female aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east, and laid out with the left arm crossed over the waist, and the right hand placed on the chest. Postdating these burials are an additional two north–south graves which are probably contemporary to T324. Parallel to T312 is T289, an earthen grave containing the pelvis and right upper femur of an adult male 3691*/(3692)/3692 aged between twenty and thirty years. This individual was on a south–north orientation. T203 lies to the west, and parallel to T289, and was another earthen grave containing the skeleton 2922*/(2923)/2924 of a child aged between eight and ten years. Only the right femur and half of the pelvis survive: these show that the body was oriented north–south. T297 lay above, and north of the feet of 3759*: the disturbed earthen grave 3718/(3717) contained the right shoulder and vertebrae of an infant 3716* aged between one and two years. Immediately above, and possibly the same grave, was another fragmentary infant burial T292. The grave 3703/(3702) contained the skeleton 3701* of an infant aged between three and nine months. Only the ribs, vertebral column and part of the cranium survive, these indicate that the infant was buried on a south–north orientation.  Immediately above, and again possibly part of the same grave, was a third fragmentary infant burial T290. The grave 3696/(3695) contained the skeleton of an infant who died at birth. It is articulated, if disturbed, and was oriented south–north, like the burial below. The next burial in this sequence is T185 (parallel to 2599*): the grave 2858/(2859) contained the complete skeleton 2857* of an adult male aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east, with arms crossed at the waist. A bronze coin (C223) was found in the fill.  The final burial in this sequence appears to be T107: the grave 2575/(2574) of a skeleton 2573* of a child aged between two and four years. The skeleton is oriented west–east, and the body was laid out crouched and lying on its left side (Fig. 49). This is an excellent example of infant burials being buried as if they were sleeping.²⁸

To the north of these burials, and probably contemporary, was T316, an earthen grave 3822/(3821)/3820* which contained the feet and lower left fibula of an adult pushed against, and cut into the earlier tomb wall [3816].The feet are tightly bound suggesting that this may have been a shroud burial. T315 lies immediately above, also cut into  [3816]; the grave 3819/(3818) contained the partial skeleton 3817* of an adult laid out in a supine position on a west–east orientation. Only the lower legs survive. Above was T301, a poorly preserved grave 3733/(3732) of an infant  3731* aged between two and three years. Only the lower right femur, tibia and fibula survived. Above and cut into the earlier tomb wall [3606] was T295. Only a small area of the grave 3712/(3711) survived; it contained the skeleton 3710* of an adult. Only the left humerus, ribs and the right fingers of the skeleton survived. T256 lay above: the earthen grave 3558/(3587) contained the skeleton 3556* of an adult female aged between 30 and 40 years. The body was oriented west–east. The cranium, torso, lower arms and part of the pelvis were missing. T251 lay slightly to the south and above T315: the earthen grave 3542/(3541) contained the disturbed partial skeleton 3540* of a child aged between three and four. The skeleton is very fragmented: only a few leg and torso bones survived, which indicate that the child was laid out on an east–west orientation. T246 lies to the west, and is cut into 3565*: the grave 3514/(3513) contains the skeleton 3512* of an adult male aged between 20 and 30 years. The body is oriented southwest–northeast. The cranium, much of torso, the right pelvis and femur are missing. A very small bronze circular buckle/ ring? (O724) was found on the pelvis near the finger bones of the right hand, and a bronze ring (O726) with a central decoration was found near the toe bones of the right foot. A bronze nugget was also found in the fill (3513). The latest burial T124 in this sequence is on a very different orientation. The grave 2643/(2642) contains the skeleton 2641* of an infant aged between six and eighteen months. The skeleton is oriented northwest–southeast, respecting the steps, and was buried partially on its left side with its legs flexed.

Sequence 15
The earliest burial in this sequence appears to be T305, a grave 3749/(3748) with a rectangular cut in the clay which used [2416] as its southern limit. The grave contained the partial skeleton 3747* of an adult. Only the left leg and right feet survived. The tarsals are completely disconnected suggesting that the skeleton was buried in an open space. T296 lay to the west, cutting into T305: the grave 3715/(3714) contained the skeleton  3713* of a 12- to 15-year-old juvenile. The skeleton was oriented west–east. The cranium and right leg is missing, and the torso area is extremely jumbled indicating that it may have been buried in an empty space. T275 lay slightly to the west, cut into T296: the grave 3624/(3623) contained a skeleton 3622* of a mature adult female aged between 40 and 50 years on a southwest–northeast orientation. The cranium, arms and right leg were missing. Above, and slightly to the east, was T263: the grave 3579/(3578) contained the cranium and upper cervical vertebrae 3577* of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years oriented west–east. The cranium had fallen onto its left side, suggesting an open space. T259 lay immediately above, cut into T263—none of the disturbed bones from 3577* were found, suggesting that they were placed in the ossuary. T259 contained the grave 3567/3566 of an adult male skeleton 3565* aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton is complete apart from the left humerus. The body is oriented southwest–northeast and is laid out with the arms crossed at the waist. The skull has fallen from the cervical vertebrae, and turned slightly to the north suggesting the presence of a headrest. T257 was cut 3561 into T259, and is slightly to the north. The skeleton 3559*/(3560) is that of an adult female aged between 25 and 30 years. Only the cranium and upper torso survive oriented west–east. Part of T102 lay above: all that survived of the grave 2552/(2551) was the left tibia and foot 2550* of an adult. The foot was flexed, suggesting that it may have originally been wrapped in something. Above was T215: the grave 2971/(2970) contained the skeleton 2969* of an adult oriented west–east. Only the left scapula, humerus, fibula and a few ribs survive. T174 is one of the latest burials in this sequence and seems to have cut T102 and T215. The grave 2823/(2822) contains the skeleton 2821* of an adult male aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast and is laid out with arms crossed at the waist. The top of the cranium and right arm is missing. There was bronze corrosion on the right tibia and a fragment of a bronze ring (O601) was found in the fill (2822). The latest burial in this sequence appears to be the disturbed tomb T162. The grave 2785/(2784) contained the skeleton 2783* of an infant aged between 6 and 18 months. The skeleton is oriented west–east, and seems to have been buried in a supine position. The disturbance seems to have been caused by the graves to the west.

Sequence 16
T302 lay above T301, and slightly to the south, cut into the earlier tomb wall [3730]: the earthen grave 3736/(3735) contained the partial skeleton 3734* of an adult female aged between 25 and 35 years on a west–east orientation. The right leg, right pelvis and left foot survive. Above was T265, the tomb of an infant covered by a semi-circular Roman roof tile 3584. The grave 3587/(3586) contained the skeleton 3585* an infant who died between birth and nine months. The skeleton is rather jumbled due to the vacuum provided by the roof tile, but it was oriented west–east, and seems to have been buried in the crouched position. T139 lay above T265 and the feet of T150, and cut the earlier grave T140 to the west: the earthen grave 2708/(2707) contained the skeleton 2706* of a juvenile aged between eleven and thirteen years. The skeleton was missing the lower legs, and there were signs of post-mortem disturbance on the upper left side. The body was laid out with the arms crossed, on a west–east orientation. A small square iron buckle (O557) was found on the torso, suggesting that the body was buried clothed. The latest burial appears to be T114, immediately to the south of the church entrance. The earthen grave 2601/(2600) contained the complete skeleton 2599* of a juvenile aged between nine and thirteen years (Fig. 50). The skeleton is oriented west–east. The feet are tightly crossed, the right arm is crossed over the waist, and the left hand was placed on the chest. The taphonomic position suggests that the skeleton was buried in a shroud.

Sequence 17
To the north of T279 was T270, an earth grave 3609/(3608) containing the skeleton 3607* of an adult, probably male, aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the pelvis, ribs, lower arms and left leg were missing. T267 was cut 3594 into T270 and T315 and oriented southwest–northeast. The grave 3594/(2593) contained the skeleton 3592* of a tall adult male, aged between 40 and 50 years. The body was laid out with the arms crossed over the waist. T254 lay above: the grave 3552/(3551) contained the skeleton 3550* of a juvenile (possibly male) aged between fourteen and eighteen years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; The feet were placed together and the left arm crossed at the waist and the right hand slightly raised. Above was T151: the earthen grave 2748/(2747) contained the skeleton 2746* of an adult female between 20 and 30 years. Only the cranium and upper vertebrae survive, these indicate that the skeleton was oriented west–east. The latest burial in this sequence is T150 (Fig. 51): the earthen grave 2745/(2744) contained the skeleton of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years. The skeleton 2743* is oriented southwest–northeast and was laid out with the right hand placed on the chest and the left hand crossed. An iron nail was found in the fill (2744).

Above the north–south tombs T292 and T391, was T177. The grave 2833/(2832) contained the skeleton 2831* of an adult male aged between  25 and 35 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; it is missing its arms and cranium. A bronze buckle (O58) was found in the centre of the pelvis. T097 lies to the east, and above T177: the earthen grave 2515/(2514) contains the skeleton 2513* of an adult female on a west–east orientation. Only the left side, pelvis and femur survived revealing that the left hand was placed in the centre of the chest.

Sequence 18
The area south of the church door appears to have been used intensively for a series of burials in a collective tomb T312, perhaps a walled tomb (cut = 3791). The earliest burial is poorly preserved: only the right scapula of an adult 3789*/(3790) survives. Its position shows that the body oriented north–south. Above was the skeleton 3781*/(3782)/3783 of an adult on a north–south orientation. Only the torso and mandible survived; the arms were crossed, the right hand is placed over the breast. Above was the skeleton 3771*/(3772)/3773 of a 6- to 7-year-old child (Fig. 52) buried on a north–south orientation. The right hand was placed over the pelvis. The left arm and feet are missing.  Pottery, two strips of lead (O976, O977) and an iron nail were found in the fill (3772), along with a piece of Roman cornice (AE992). Above containing the skeleton 3743*/(3744)/3745 of an adult male aged between 30 and 50 on a north–south orientation. The skeleton was cut at the lumbar vertebrae and the upper torso and cranium survived; the left arm was crossed over the waist, and the right hand placed over the chest. Some fragments of medieval ceramics were found in the fill (3744). Immediately above was T175, the disarticulated burial  2824*/(2825)/2826 of an infant probably oriented south–north. 

Burials within the substructures of the bell tower (Sequence 19)
To the west of the main cemetery, and within the substructures of the bell tower, a series of earthen graves were found cut into the yellow clay layer (2672) and the flagstone pavement 3870=3871=3872. The earliest appears to be T299, a disturbed grave 3724*/(3725)/3726, containing the left torso of a 5- to 7-year-old child on a west–east orientation. T144 lay above, a simple earthen grave 2723*/(2724)/2735 containing the partial adult skeleton of a 30- to 40-year-old, oriented west–east. The cranium was missing, there was a cut below ribs, most thoracic vertebrae missing, both arms and hands were missing, but both scapulae present, lying on top of pavement in bell tower. Above was T132, a simple earthen grave 2687/(2686) containing an adult male 2685* between 40 and 50 years. The skeleton is missing its right knee cap and left

To the south of this cluster, was the poorly preserved T309; the earthen grave 3770/(3769) contained only the cranium and articulated cervical vertebrae of a child 3768* oriented west–east.To the south of T309, was T298, another disturbed earthen grave 3723/(3722) containing the right arm and some ribs of an adult 3721* on a west–east orientation. To the south was an additional unexcavated grave cut, 3848 containing a reduction of bones (3849); some of these were removed at the end of 2009 season, but the grave was not excavated.

To the south, and pushed against the southern foundation offset [2234] of the bell towerwas T133 (Fig. 53), another simple earth grave 2690, containing the complete skeleton 2688* of a 30- to 40-year-old adult male oriented west–east, with arms crossed. Two rings (O608 and O1025) were found in the fill (2689). Above was a reduction 3846/(3847) of disarticulated human bone.

South of [2001]

The remaining graves were cut into a dark brown loose earth layer (2287) containing large amounts of human bone, mortar, medieval ceramic, glass and fragments of fresco. This is presumably equal to (2489) in the north of the trench.  An iron rectangular belt buckle (O433) and a bronze antoninianus (C55) of Claudius II (268–80 AD) were found in the fill.

As outlined above, there may be two phases of burials in this zone, the latest associated with the construction of the southern cemetery wall [2103] and a series of plaster pavements 2395=2200=2213 were identified in the south of the trench, though these were cut by later graves (Fig. 54). Above these pavements was a deep fill layer (2082) of friable earth with large amounts of ceramic, stone, tile and loose human bone. Further graves were cut into this layer. Several finds, presumably originally from graves, were collected from this layer including a small bronze tintunabulum (O1114), identical to O12 found in T062, an iron buckle with tang (O80), a Constantinan (348–350 AD) coin (C20) and an unidentifiable silver medieval coin (C7). The pottery dates between 1200–1350 AD. Unfortunately, it was impossible to clearly differentiate between the two subphases, but the radiocarbon suggests that it took place over a short amount of time.

Sequence 20
Parallel to the earlier narthex wall [2328] were four north–south burials of children.

T308 seems to be the earliest: the grave 3768/(3767) contains the fragmentary skeleton 3765* of a child oriented north–south. Only the left torso, humerus and femur survive.

T307 lay above: the grave 3764/(3763) contained the complete skeleton 3762* of an 18- to 24-month-old infant. The skeleton is oriented north–south, with the left arm crossed over the waist, and the right hand placed on the chest.

T304 is the most westerly: the grave 3742/(3741) contained the skeleton 3740* of a 1- to 2-year-old infant. The skeleton was oriented north–south and laid out with the hips and knees rotated slightly to the left. A piece of hooked wire (O857) was found in the fill (3741). These three burials may have been in the same grave or burial plot.

T288 is slightly to the north of T308, T307 and T304. The grave 3684/(3683) contained the skeleton 3682* of an infant no older than six months. The cranium, cervical vertebrae and clavicles survive and show that this infant was also laid out on a north–south orientation.

Sequence 21
T274 lies immediately to the north of this group and is another north–south grave built against the earlier narthex wall [2328] and above T262. The grave 3621/(2622) contains the skeleton 3619* of an adult oriented north–south. Only the femurs and feet survive.

T272 lies immediately above: the grave 3615/(3614) is oriented southwest–northeast and contains the body 3613* of a probable female aged between 25 and 35 years. The cranium and part of the right torso survive.

T387 lies immediately above the earlier tomb wall [3753] and disturbed T272: the grave 3576/(3575) contained the partial skeleton 3574* of an adult male aged between sixteen and twenty years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the body was laid out with the right leg bent below the left, the left arm is crossed at the waist. The cranium, right arm and right side of the torso are missing. An iron nail was found in the fill.

T261 lies slightly to the north and is cut through both the earlier narthex wall [2328] and T262 (Fig. 55). The earthen grave 3573/(3572) contains the skeleton 3571* of an adult female aged between 35 and 45 years oriented west–east. The left hand was placed on the pelvis and the right arm crossed.

T082 covers T261 and continues under the later fortification wall. The earth grave 2453/(2452) contains the skeleton 2451* of an adult female aged between 25 and 35 years. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast and had crossed arms. Only the cranium and right side of the torso are visible.

T348 lies to the south of T082: the earth grave 2440/(2439) contains the skeleton 2438* of a juvenile aged between eight and nine years. Only the torso and arms survive: the body seems to have been oriented west–east with the arms crossed at the waist.

T076 was cut into T348: the earth grave 2428/(2427) contained the partial skeleton 2426* of an adult female aged between 20 and 30 years. The cranium and legs are missing. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast with arms crossed at the waist.

T075 was cut into T076 and lies slightly to its east. The earth grave 2425/(2424) contains the skeleton 2423* of an adult female aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast and runs under the later fortification wall. The cranium is also missing.

T046 covers T075: the earth grave 2283/(2282) contains the skeleton 2281* of a child aged between three and four years. The body is oriented southwest–northeast and is laid out with the right hand placed on the pelvis. The left side of the skeleton is missing.

T040 appears to be the latest burial in this sequence: the earth grave 2266/(2265) contains the complete skeleton 2264* of a juvenile aged between thirteen and fifteen years. The skeleton on a southwest–northeast orientation, with the right hand placed on the pelvis and the right arm crossed over the chest.

Sequence 22
T303 seems to have cut T288. The grave 3739/(3738) contained the skeleton 3737* of an adult male aged between 25 and 35 years oriented west–east (Fig. 56). Part of the left side of the body was missing. The right arm was crossed over the waist, and the left hand placed on the chest. A Roman roof-tile was placed over the cranium, perhaps as a gesture of humility.

T347 lies immediately above T303: the earthen grave 2959/(2958) appears to be cut in a roughly oval shape into the pavement preparation or rubble from the abandoned narthex (Fig. 57). The skeleton was that of an adult male aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton 2957* is oriented west–east. The feet were placed together and the hands were placed on the pelvis.

To the north of these two graves was a group of two infant burials. T178 is the earliest of these and seems to be directly above T197: the grave 2836/(2835) contains the skeleton 2834* of an infant aged between six and twelve months. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast and is arranged with the body lying partially on its right side with flexed legs.

T041 was buried above T178, though possibly in a later sub-phase of burial: the earth grave 2269/(2268) contained the skeleton 2267* of an infant aged between one and two years. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast; the arms were crossed. It is cut into the white plaster surface 2232.

T103 lay immediately above T347: the earth grave 2556/(2555) contained the complete skeleton 2554* of an adult male aged between 35 and 45 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east. The right foot was placed over the left, the left arm was crossed over the waist, and the right hand was placed on the chest.

T098 covered T347: the earth grave 2518/(2517) contained the skeleton 2516* of a child aged between three and four years. The skeleton is oriented west–east. The lower arms are missing; the feet are crossed.

T020 lay to the southwest of T098: the grave 2172/(2181) contained the partial skeleton 2180* of a 3- to 9-month-old infant. The skeleton was extremely disturbed and only the vertebrae, right arm and part of the cranium survived. The skeleton was oriented west–east.

T006 covered T098 and was cut into T020 and the earlier narthex wall [2328], rather than respecting it as the earlier graves had done: the earth grave 2168/(2133) contained the skeleton 2132* of an adult male aged between 30 and 35 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the right arm was crossed over the chest. The left side of the skeleton and lower legs were missing.

The latest graves in this sequence are T039, T004, T015 which seem part of the same sub-phase. T015 was cut into T006 and T018: the earth grave 2154/(2155) contained the skeleton 2153* of a child aged between nine and eleven years. The body was oriented southwest–northeast; the arms were crossed, right above left.

T004 lay to the west of T015 and covering the earlier narthex wall [2328]: the earth grave 2141/(2123) contained the complete skeleton 2109* of a juvenile aged between eleven and fourteen years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. The arms were crossed, right over left.

T039 lay to the north of T004: the earth grave 2262/(2261) contained the skeleton 2260* of a child aged between two and three years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the hands were placed over the pelvis.

Sequence 23
To the south of Sequence 21, and west of Sequence 22, a series of graves lay above the marble slab pavement [2741] of the narthex.

The earliest were a cluster of infant burials. T120 is the most westerly and covers the earlier north–south infant burials in Sequence 21: the earth grave 2627/(2626) contained an infant 2625*. Only the ribs and vertebrae survive, but their position suggests that the infant was laid out on a south–north orientation.

T141 lay to the east: it contained the grave of a infant aged less than twelve months 2714*/(2715)/2716. The body was oriented west–east; only the lower legs survived.

T136 lay to the east, and was the grave 2699/(2698) of an infant 2697*. The skeleton was extremely fragmented and it was not possible to determine the body position.

T135 lay above: the grave 2695/(2694) of a 6- to 18-month-old infant 2694* was oriented west–east. Only the cranium and upper body survive.

T134 lay above: the grave 2693/(2692) contained a foetus 2691* aged nine lunar months. The body was oriented west–east and is slightly flexed.

T122 was to the east of this group of infants: the grave 2633/(2632) contained a foetus 2631* aged nine lunar months. The skeleton was poorly preserved, but laid out in a supine position on a west–east orientation.

T110 covered T136, T135 and T134: the earth grave 2586/(2585) contained a 20- to 25-year-old adult female 2584* oriented west–east. The skeleton is missing the entire left side of the skeleton, the cranium, and the lower legs. The body was cut very neatly by a later grave, and the sacrum is cut in half.

T117 was the grave 2611/(2610) of a poorly preserved infant 2609* who died at birth. The body was placed directly on the pelvis of 2584*, who we might imagine was the mother who also died during childbirth.

T121 was cut into T110 and lay slightly to the east: the grave 2629/(2630) contained a 20- to 25-year-old adult male 2628* on a west–east orientation. The right arm is crossed over the stomach; the left arm, shoulder and part of the cranium is missing.

T115 was located north of, and parallel to, T110: the earth grave 2604/(2605) contained a 6- to 8-year-old child 2603* on a west–east orientation. Only the lower legs and part of the right arm survive.

T109 was above T115 and covered the marble slabs [2741]: the earth grave 2582/(2581) contained an adult male 2580* oriented west–east; the skull and most of the right side are missing.

T095 was cut into T109 and T110: the earth grave 2506/(2505) contained an 18- to 20-year-old adult female 2504* oriented west–east. The skeleton was complete. The right hand was placed on the neck and the left hand on the upper right side of the torso, the legs are slightly flexed and the feet placed together. T091 lay above T095: it is the earthen grave 2488/(2487) of a 5- to 8-year-old child 2486* oriented west–east with the legs slightly flexed. The skeleton is partially complete; the right leg, lower torso, arms and skull are missing.

T042 is cut into T091: the earth grave 2272/(2271) contains the complete skeleton 2270* of a juvenile aged between twelve and fifteen years. The skeleton is oriented west–east; the arms were crossed over the chest.

T031 was east of T042, and cut into, T121, it lay immediately in front of the church facade. The earth grave 2219/(2218) contained a juvenile 2217* aged between fourteen and sixteen years. The skeleton was oriented west–east. Only the legs and lower torso of the skeleton survive.

 T007 lay above, but slightly to the west: the earth grave 2166/(2135) contained an adult male 2134* aged between thirty and forty years. The skeleton is oriented west–east and laid out with the arms crossed at the waist. The skull, right leg, and part of the left lower leg are missing.

T013 is one of the latest burials in this sequence and is cut into T007, removing its lower legs. The earth grave (2120) contained the skeleton 2061* of a 12- to 18-month-old infant. The skeleton was in poor condition, but complete apart from the arms and lower legs. It was oriented west–east.

T012 is probably the same sub-phase as T013, it is to the north of T042. The earthen grave (2117) contained the skeleton 2105* of an infant aged less than three months.

Sequence 24
T143 is situated immediately west of the church facade: the earth grave 2722/(2721) contained the skeleton 2720* of an adult. Only the lower legs survive: these suggest that the body was oriented southwest–northeast.

T137 was cut into T143 and located slightly to the west: the earth grave 2702/(2701) contained the skeleton 2700* of a juvenile male aged between fifteen and eighteen years. The skeleton was oriented west–east. Only the pelvis and lower limbs survived, due to the later insertion of T109 (see preceding sequence).

T081 was cut into T137:  a re-used Roman tile served as a cover for the grave 2450/(2449). The disarticulated skeletons 2448* of two infants were below the tile. One of these died at birth, and the other lived no longer than six months. The skeleton seems to have been oriented west–east.

T054 was cut into T137 and covered T081: the earth grave 2311/(2310) contained the skeleton 2309* of a child aged between one and a half and two years, oriented west–east. The cranium was damaged and the left arm and lower legs were missing.

T090 was parallel to T137 and perhaps contemporary: the earth grave 2479/(2478) contained the skeleton 2477* of an adult male aged between fifteen and twenty years. The skeleton was oriented west–east, and was lying on its right side with its legs flexed and the left arm raised to the face.

T089 lies immediately above T090: the earth grave 2476/(2475) contains the partial skeleton 2474* of an infant aged between one and a half and two years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the hands were placed over the pelvis. The pelvis, legs and much of the torso is missing.

T087 covers T089 and is on a different orientation: the earth grave 2468/(2467) contained the skeleton 2466* of an 8- to 9-year-old child. The skeleton is oriented north–south parallel to the church facade and is laid out with the arms crossed over the pelvis. The skeleton is missing the left leg, much of the torso and is truncated at the distal end of the tibia.

T086 is cut into T089: the earth grave 2465/(2464) contained the skeleton 2463* of a 4- to 5-year-old child oriented south–north like 2466*. The skeleton seems to be arranged in a supine position, with the right hand placed on the left ilium, the legs may have been flexed. Part of the cranium, left side and lower legs are missing.

T078 lies parallel to T086 and T087 but below T090: the earth grave 2437/(2436) contained the skeleton  2435* of a 15- to 18-year-old juvenile. The southwest side of the grave seems to be lined with stones, including a slab of opus sectile (AE757).  The skeleton was oriented south–north, and laid out with the right arm crossed over the waist.

T005 covered T090: the earth grave 2149/(2119) contained the skeleton 2106* of a 20- to 30-year-old adult male. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and was missing the right arm and feet. A piece of roof-tile appears to act as a headrest. The left arm crossed over the waist. Fragments of bronze and iron were found in the fill (2119).

T014 appears to be the latest burial in this area. The earth grave 2151/(2152) contained the skeleton 2150* of an adult female aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the right hand was placed on the chest, and the left hand crossed on the pelvis. The skeleton was cut at the feet, but is otherwise complete.  A bronze ring (O69) with a glass inset was found in the fill (2152).

Sequence 25
T278 lies west of the church facade and was cut for the insertion of T294 and T283: the grave 3639/(3638)  was disturbed, and contained the skeleton 3637* of a female aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the arms were crossed at the waist. The cranium upper torso, and lower legs were truncated after the proximal tibia. A large lump of bronze (O799) was found near the tibia.

T222 lies above T278 on a different orientation: the grave 2993/(2992) contains the skeleton 2991* of an infant aged between one and two years. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast, and is laid out with slightly flexed legs. Only the legs and a few vertebrae survive. The relation with T218 is unclear.

T211 is parallel to T222 and was cut into the eastern end of T347 (Sequence 22): the grave 2956/(2955) contained the skeleton 2954* of a child aged between five and seven years. The body was oriented southwest–northeast. Only the upper vertebrae, a few ribs, the pelvis and some leg fragments survived.

T186 lay immediately above T211: the grave 2865/(2864) contained the skeleton 2863* of an infant aged between six and eighteen months. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and seems to have been lying partly on its left side. Most of the cranium and right side were missing.

T182 lay immediately above T186: the grave 2850/(2849) contained the partial skeleton 2848* of an infant aged between six and twelve months. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast: only the very disturbed bones of the cranium and torso survive. A small bone cross (O634) was found below the jaw, and was presumably placed around the infant’s neck. An iron sheet fragment (O1056) was also found in the fill (2849).

T181 lay above and to the west of T182: the grave 2847/(2846) contained the partial skeleton 2845* of a 1- to 3-year-old infant oriented southwest–northeast. Very little of the skeleton survives apart from some cranium fragments and the left arm.

Sequence 26
T218 lay to the northeast, and probably pre-dates T278: the grave 2980/(2979) contain the skeleton 2978* of an adult female between 30–40 years, on a south–north orientation. The skeleton was cut at the pelvis by the later fortification wall; the left arm was crossed above the right arm. The skeleton provided a radiocarbon date of 1291–1399 cal. AD (95% probability, OxA-24875).

T104 lay above T218: the earth grave 2559/(2558) contained the skeleton 2557* of an adult, probably female, aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east, but the majority of the body was under the later fortification wall; the right arm was crossed at the waist.

T077 lay south of, and parallel to T104: the earth grave 2431/(2430) contained the complete skeleton 2429* of an adult female aged between 20 and 25 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east and laid out with the right arm crossed at the waist, and the left hand placed on the right pelvis. A bronze ring (O340) with glass bezel was found on the right hand of the skeleton.

T038 covered T077 and the infant burial T182 (Sequence above): the earth grave 2259/(2258) contained the skeleton 2257* of an adult female aged between 45 and 55 years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the arms were crossed over the pelvis. An iron nail and fragments of bronze were found in the fill (2258).

T019 is one of the latest burials in this sequence, and may post-date the construction of the fortification wall, as it seems to be aligned to it and lies 40 cm below its foundation offset (Fig. 58). The earth grave 2175/(2174) contained the skeleton 2173* of an 11- to 14-year-old juvenile. The skeleton is oriented approximately west–east; the left hand was placed on the pelvis and the right arm crossed. Pieces of a bronze object (O87) were found in the fill (2174).

T018 lay south of and parallel to T019: the earth grave 2171/(2169) contained the skeleton 2170* of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast. The right arm is missing due to the insertion of T016, but the left is crossed at the waist. The fill (2169) contained traces of bronze and an arris (AE907).

Sequence 27
Immediately in front of the side entrance into the church was T294: the narrowly cut grave 3709 had a stone marking its southern end, and contained the skeleton 3707* of an adult female aged between 25 and 35 years. The skeleton was oriented south–north and runs below the later fortification wall. The right hand was placed on the pelvis, and the left hand on the chest. Some fragments of slag (O988), medieval ceramics and a fragment of a medieval glass lamp (L38) were found in the fill (3708).

T283 lay immediately above: it is a south–north earthen grave 3669/(3668) containing the partial skeleton 3667* of a 3- to 5-year-old child. Only the cranium, left scapula and a few vertebrae survive.

T271 lay immediately above cut into T283 and continues under the fortification wall: the earthen grave 3612/(3611) contained the partial skeleton 3610* of a probable male aged between 30 and 40 years. The body is oriented south–north; the arms were crossed at the waist. A roof-tile was used to line the western edge of the grave.

T266 lay above, and slightly to the south: the grave 3590/(3591) contained the partial skeleton  3588* of a child aged between four and six years. The skeleton was oriented south–north, but only the right ilium and femora survived.

Sequence 28
T282 was cut into the earlier walled tomb T262, cutting its eastern wall [3752]. The grave 3652*/(3653)/3654 above contained a 30- to 40-year-old adult female. Part of the cranium, the left humerus and feet are missing. 3652* was oriented west–east, with arms crossed across the chest.

T280 seems to post-date T282: the poorly preserved grave 3648/(3647) contained the foot 3646* of an adult oriented west–east.

T179 lay exactly above T282: the earthen grave 2839/(2838) contained the partial skeleton 2837* of an adult male aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton is oriented west–east and laid out with the arms crossed over the chest. The legs are missing. An iron D-shaped buckle (O636) was found between the skull and upper vertebrae.

T058 lay above T179: the earthen grave 2334/(2333) contained the skeleton 2332* of an adult aged between 40 and 50 years. The cranium, legs and right side are missing. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast; the left arm was crossed over the waist.

T037 is the latest burial in this sequence: it lay above T058 and appears to have been disturbed by the construction of the later fortification wall. The earthen grave 2256/(2255) contained the skeleton 2254* of a child aged between one and a half and two years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the hands were placed over the pelvis.

West of [2328]

The area west of the earlier narthex wall [2328] was not fully excavated. The following describes the results of the excavations up to the end of 2008.

Sequence 29
T205 is situated immediately to the north of the walled tomb T187 from the Late Medieval A phase: the earth grave 2934/(2933) contained the skeleton 2932* of an adult. The skeleton was oriented west–east. Only the right shoulder and some ribs survive.

T156 lay immediately to the west, in the same area, and pre-dates T158: the earth grave 2765/(2764) contained the partial skeleton 2763* of an adult oriented west–east. Only some ribs and vertebrae survive in situ.

T129 is cut into T156 and also pre-dates T158: the earth grave 2671/(2670) contained the partial skeleton 2669* of an adult. The right arm, vertebrae and ribs survive on a southwest–northeast orientation.

T131 was cut into both T205 and T156. The earthen grave 2678/(2677) contained the skeleton 2676* of an adult male aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton is missing its right leg and left lower leg. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. The arms were crossed over the waist.

T138 was cut into T131, removing its lower legs. The earth grave 2705/(2704) contained the skeleton 2703* of a 7- to 9-year-old child. The skeleton was missing its lower limbs. It was oriented west–east; the arms were crossed, right over left. Fragments of glass and metal were found in the fill (2704).

T173 lay above T138: the earthen grave 2675/(2674) contained the skeleton 2673* of an adult oriented southwest–northeast. Only the right torso and femur survive: these are in a supine extended position.

T085 lay to the south and was cut into T138 removing the lower limbs of 2703*: the earth grave 2462/(2461) contained the skeleton 2460* of a 9- to 10-year-old child. The skeleton was missing its cranium, but otherwise complete. It was oriented west–east; the hands were crossed over the pelvis.

T057 was cut into T085: the earth grave 2320/(2319) contained the skeleton 2318* of a 7- to 8-year-old child. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. The right arm was crossed over the chest, and the feet were placed together.

T073 was cut into T086: the disturbed earthen grave 2394/(2393) contained the fragmentary remains 2392* of a child aged between five and six years. Only a few fragments of the ribs, vertebrae and cranium survived.

T051 covers T073 and was cut into the plaster surface 2213: the earth grave 2302/(2301) contained the skeleton 2300* of a 12-month-old infant. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and was laid out with slightly flexed legs and the hands placed over the pelvis.

T349 post-dates T158: the earth grave 2226/(2225) contained the skeleton 2224* of an adult aged between 30 and 40 years. Pieces of the cranium, vertebrae, and right scapula and clavicle survive. The body was oriented west–east.

T028 was cut into T073: the earth grave 2228/(2208) contained the partial skeleton 2207* of an adult male aged between 30 and 35 years. The right side and lower left leg were missing. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the left hand was placed on the pelvis. An iron nail was found in the fill (2208).

T021 lies to the southwest of T028: the earth grave 2192/(2191) contained the skeleton 2190* of a 6- to 12-month-old infant. The cranium and left arm were missing. The skeleton is oriented south–north; the legs were slightly flexed and the right hand was placed on the pelvis.

T030 is the latest grave in this sequence, and was cut into T028 and the plaster surface 2213 (Fig. 59). The grave 2216/(2215) contained the skeleton 2214* of an adult female aged between 20 and 25 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the right arm was crossed over the left. A fourteenth-century silver denaro provisino of the senate (C6) was found in the fill.

The earth grave 2444/(2443) contained the skeleton 2442* of a 16- to 18-year-old juvenile. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and laid out with the hands over the pelvis. An iron buckle with strap-end (O370) was found on the pelvis below the hands.

Sequence 30
T176 (Fig. 60) is cut into the earlier walled tomb T187 disturbing its northern wall [2402] and lies south of, and parallel to T205: the earth grave 2830/(2829) contained the complete skeleton 2828* of an adult male aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton is oriented west–east; the right hand was placed on the pelvis and the left hand placed on the right elbow.

T072 partly covers T176 and is cut into the plaster pavement. The grave 2385/(2384) contains the skeleton 2383* of a juvenile aged between fifteen and twenty years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and is missing its cranium and right humerus. The arms were crossed at the waist.

T068 lies to the south of T176 and was cut into the walled tomb T187: the grave 2363/(2362) contained the skeleton 2361* of a child aged between four and five years. The cranium, and much of the right side are missing. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast. The right arm is crossed over the chest.

T052 was cut into T068: the grave 2305/(2304) contained the skeleton 2303* of a 6- to 7-year-old child. The lower legs were missing. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and laid out with the left arm crossed and the right hand placed on the chest.

T050 was cut into T052: the grave 2299/(2298) contained the skeleton 2297* of a male juvenile aged between fourteen and eighteen years. The cranium was missing. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the arms were crossed. A bronze ring with square ornament (O173) was found on the right hand.

T045 was cut into T050: the grave 2280/(2279) contained the skeleton 2278* of a 6- to 12-month-old infant. The legs and some ribs survived. The skeleton was oriented northwest–southeast.

T032 was cut into T045: the grave 2222/(2221) contained the skeleton 2220* of an adult male aged between 35 and 45 years. The cranium, left humerus and lower legs were missing. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and laid out with arms crossed at the waist.

T024 was cut into T032: the grave 2196/(2195) contained the skeleton 2194* of an 8- to 12-year-old child. The skeleton was oriented west–east. The left arm was crossed over the waist.

T029 was cut into T032: the grave 2212/(2211) contained the skeleton 2210* of an adult female aged between 25 and 35 years. The cranium, upper torso and right humerus are missing. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast with arms crossed. A bronze ring (O59) with a glass inset was found on the right hand.

T008 was cut into T029: the grave 2158/(2122) contained the skeleton 2111* of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years. The skeleton was missing the cranium and left side of the body; the right arm was crossed. The body was oriented southwest–northeast.

T017 was cut into T008: the grave 2164/(2165) contained the skeleton 2163* of a child aged between one and two years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. The right leg was flexed and placed below the left, and the hands were placed on the pelvis.

T016 covered T017: the grave 2160/(2161) contained the skeleton 2159* of a child aged between three and five years. The skeleton was missing the arms, and oriented west–east.

T009 lay southeast of T008: the grave 2162/(2124) contained the complete skeleton 2110* of an adult female aged between 25 and 30 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the right arm was crossed over the chest and the left hand placed on the chest.

T025 lay to the east of T009: the grave 2199/(2198) contained the skeleton 2197* of a child aged between three and four years. The cranium was missing. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. The legs were flexed and the hands placed over the pelvis. The base of an iron key (O73) was found in the fill (2198) near the feet.

T003 was cut into T025 and is the latest grave in this sequence: the grave 2140/(2116) contained the skeleton 2104* of a child aged between five and seven years. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the left arm was crossed and the right hand placed on the pelvis.

Two graves lay to the south of this group. The earliest was T066: the grave 2356/(2355) contained the skeleton 2354* of an infant who died between birth and six months. The arms and cranium were missing. The skeleton was oriented west–east.

T022 was cut into T066: the earth grave 2189/(2188) contained the skeleton 2187* of a 6- to 9-month-old infant. The body was oriented southwest–northeast and laid out with the arms crossed and the right leg slightly flexed. A bronze coin (C224) was found on the pelvis.

Sequence 31
South of T187 was a series of graves in line with the southern wall [2103] of the cemetery.

T059 may in fact predate [2103], as its lower legs appear to be cut by the construction of [2103]. It may be a walled tomb, similar to T187. The grave 2337/(2336) contained the skeleton 2335* of an adult male aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton was missing its legs. It was oriented west–east and laid out with the arms crossed. A coin (C39) was found on the pelvis.

T060 was cut into T059: the disturbed grave 2340/(2339) also appears to have been cut by the construction of [2103]. The skeleton 2338* was that of an infant who died between birth and three months, and is extremely poorly preserved. The skeleton appears to be oriented west–east.

T036 was cut into T060: the grave 2253/(2252) also appears to have been cut by the construction of [2103]. The skeleton 2251* was that of an infant aged between two and two and a half years oriented west–east. The skeleton had slightly flexed legs, and the left arm was crossed above the waist.

T033 was cut into T036: the grave 2231/(2230) contained the skeleton 2229* of an infant who died at birth. The skeleton was oriented west–east and is poorly preserved. A piece of iron was found near the cranium in the fill (2230).

T010 covered these burials: the earth grave 2157/(2121) contained the skeleton 2108* of an adult male aged between 40 and 45 years. The cranium, arms and right lower leg were missing. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast. An iron annular belt buckle (O78) was found near the pelvis.

T011 cut T010, removing its leg and is the latest burial in this sequence. It lies parallel to [2103] The earth grave 2156/(2126) contained the skeleton 2107* of a juvenile aged between eleven and fourteen years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the hands were clasped over the pelvis.

Sequence 32
A group of infant graves post-dating the construction of [2103] lay to the west of this sequence.

T074 is the earliest: the grave 2398/(2397) contained the partial skeleton 2396* of an infant. Only the vertebrae and left ribs survive. The body appears to be on a west–east orientation.

T101 was cut into T074 and the earlier narthex wall [2328]: the grave 2379/(2378) contained the skeleton 2377* of an infant aged between twelve and eighteen months. Only the cranium, ribs and vertebrae survive showing that the infant was buried on a west–east orientation.

T070 was cut into T101: the grave 2372/(2371) contained the skeleton 2370* of a 6- to 12-month-old infant. The skeleton was more or less intact, but in very poor condition. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast and laid out with the hands placed over the pelvis and the legs slightly flexed. A bone cross (O208) was found below the jaw.

T023 was cut into T070. The grave 2186/(2185) contained three disturbed infant skeletons: 2193*, a 3- to 6-month-old infant; 2184*A, a 6- to 12-month-old infant; 2184*B, a 6- to 18-month-old infant.

T001 is the latest burial in this sequence and was cut into T023: the grave 2139/(2118) contained the skeleton 2102* of a child. The skeleton is oriented southwest–northeast and aligned with [2103]. The arms were placed over the waist.

Sequence 33
A group of north–south burials were uncovered parallel to the western cemetery wall [2081].

T145 appears to be the earliest grave. The earthen grave 2728/(2727) contained the partial skeleton 2726* of an adult male aged between 40 and 50 years. The pelvis and ribs survived,  oriented north–south in line with [2081].

T158 was cut into T145 and T156; it lay parallel to [2081], running behind T187. The earth grave 2771/(2769) contained the skeleton 2769* of an adult female aged between 20 and 30 years. The skeleton was oriented north–south; the left arm was crossed over the right.

T113 lay to the south of T158, parallel to [2081]. The disturbed earthen grave 2598/(2597) contained the skeleton 2596* of a 12- to 18-month-old infant. Only the upper portion of the body survives, arranged on a south–north orientation. A bronze handle (O756) was found below the cranium in the fill (2597).

T170 was cut into T145 and to its north: the earth grave 2811/(2810) contained the partial skeleton 2809* of an adult oriented south–north. Only the right arm and right ribs survived.

T142 was cut into T170: the disturbed earth grave 2719/(2718) contained the partial skeleton 2717* of an infant. Only the ribs and some vertebrae survive and these indicate that it was oriented west–east.

T088 was cut into T142: the earth grave 2471/(2470) contained the skeleton 2469* of an adult female aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the right hand on the pelvis, and the left hand crossed below the ribs. A chunk of bronze was found in the fill (2470) near the feet.

T071 lies slightly to the southeast and above T088: the grave 2376/(2375) contains the partial skeleton 2374* of an adult female. The cranium, torso, right pelvis and femur are missing. The skeleton is oriented west–east.

T069 cuts into T088, and was slightly to its south: the grave 2366/(2365) contained the skeleton 2364* of a 30- to 40-year-old adult female. The skeleton was oriented west–east; the arms were crossed over the waist. The cranium was missing.

T056 lay immediately above T088: the grave 2317/(2316) contained the skeleton 2315* of an adult female aged between 35 and 45 years. The skeleton was oriented south–north in line with [2081] and was cut by the later fortification wall. The right arm was extended.

T61 was cut into T056: the earth grave 2343/(2342) contained the skeleton 2341* of an infant aged between one and a half and three years. The skeleton was oriented west–east, and was partly lying on its right side with legs bent.

T049 lay above the legs of T088: the grave 2296/(2295) contained the skeleton 2294* of an infant aged between six and nine months. The skeleton was in poor shape, and much of the left side was cut by the fortification wall. It was oriented west–east. Two bronze coins (C33 and C34) was found in the fill, one placed on the rib cage.

T027 lay above T049: the grave 2206/(2205) contained the skeleton 2204* of a 2.5- to 3.5-year-old infant oriented southwest–northeast. The skeleton is complete, but the left leg and arm were disarticulated, presumably from the construction of [2001]. The hands were placed over the pelvis.

T026 lay above T027 and is the latest burial next to wall [2081] (Fig. 61): the grave 2203/(2202) continues under [2001]. The skeleton 2201* was that of a 3- to 5-year-old child, and was oriented south–north; the arms were crossed. A bronze lamp chain (O86) was found around the child’s neck, presumably re-used as a necklace.

T048 was cut into T049: the earth grave 2293/(2292) contained the skeleton 2291* of an adult female aged between 30 and 40 years. The left side was removed by a later wall and the right arm was missing. The skeleton was oriented west–east.

T047 was cut into T034 and covered T056: the earth grave 2290/(2289) contained the skeleton 2288* of a 6- to 8-year-old child. The vertebrae and right ilium and femur survived. The body was oriented west–east.

T034 covered T047: the earth grave 2237/(2236) contained the skeleton 2235* of an adult male aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the arms  were crossed at the waist.

T035 covered T034 and contained two child burials oriented southwest–northeast. The earliest was 2241*, a 3- to 5-year-old child laid out in a supine extended position with the hands placed over the pelvis. A coin (C32) and iron pin (O79) was found near the pelvis in the fill (2239). 2238*, a 7- to 8-year-old child, was buried with arms crossed.

Sequence 34
T055 lay to the west: the earth grave 2314/(2313) contained the cranium 2312* of a 30- to 40-year-old adult oriented southwest–northeast.

T053 cut T055 and continued under the later fortification wall [2001]: the earth grave 2308/(2307) contained the skeleton 2306* of a 30- to 40-year-old adult male. The cranium and left side of the torso survived. The skeleton was oriented west–east.

Sequence 35
T166 lay to the east, and was cut into T145 (Sequence 33). The earth grave 2797/(2796) contained the partial skeleton 2795* of a child aged between eight and ten years. Only the right scapula, arm and some of the upper torso survived. The skeleton was oriented southwest–northeast; the left hand was clasped over the chest.

T154 lay southeast of T166, and probably post-dates it: the earth grave 2759/(2758) contained the skeleton 2757* of a 25- to 40-year-old adult oriented west–east. Only the skull and upper vertebrae survive. The skull sits on a large inverted floor-tile which may mark the edge of an earlier walled tomb. This grave may have been cut by the grave of another skeleton which was left unexcavated.

Outside the main cemetery (Sequence 36)
A few earthen graves were found to the west of the cemetery wall [2081] cut into (2441). T084 appears to be the earliest: the grave 2459/(2458) contained the skeleton 2457* of a 12-month-old infant oriented west–east. The skeleton was missing the left arm, cranium, and most of the legs. T083 lay parallel to [2081] and was cut into T084 removing its legs: the earth grave 2456/(2455) contained the skeleton 2454* of an adult female aged between 30 and 40 years. The skeleton is missing its cranium, right humerus and feet. The skeleton is oriented north–south and was laid out with the right arm crossed above the left. T080 was cut into T083: the grave 2447/(2446) contained the skeleton 2445* of an infant who died at birth. The skeleton was oriented north–south and seems to have been laid out on its side, with the legs flexed and the arms extended.

A number of other features were also cut into (2441) to the west and south of the graves: a loose, dark brown sandy soil deposit west of [2081] in the southwest corner of the trench: a semi-circular pit 2750 filled with rubble (2749); a pit 2480/(2472) containing large amounts of animal bone.

Discussion

The graves were shallow oval-shaped cuts, which varied in size and depth and orientation. The condition of bones varied, but in general, preservation was good. In nearly all instances each grave contained a single primary inhumation. All the individuals were laid out in an extended supine position, and the majority follow an east–west orientation, as is typical of medieval Christian burials. Several individuals were found with belt and hose buckles in situ, rings on fingers, and necklaces. Otherwise, the individuals dating to this phase were devoid of grave goods or personal belongings directly associated with them. Rings, coins, bronze artefacts and other objects were sometimes found in the burial fill without direct association to an individual. These graves may be contemporary with those excavated in the funerary chapel (trench CII) inside the church.

The intersection of almost all graves presents an appearance of what at first seem to be completely chaotic burial practices. In fact, it seems to represent the methodical re-use of burial plots for new grave rows. An attempt is made in Chapter 7 of the monograph to separate out different rows and burial plots on the basis of the stratigraphy and spatial distribution of graves.²⁹ The intercutting occurs within a short time period and demonstrates a fairly basic principle of medieval Christian cemetery management: cemetery plots were not inviolable and it was acceptable to disturb the bones of the dead. It is clear, however, that different strategies were used to deal with these disturbed bones over time. Interestingly, despite the great degree of intercutting graves in this area, disturbed disarticulated bones were rarely found in this phase. This suggests that there was a general practice in this phase of immediately reinterring all the bones disturbed by later grave-digging. If this interpretation of the stratigraphy is correct, it indicates a certain level of cemetery management and possibly even suggests that external markers for the graves once existed. No grave markers were found in situ, however, two examples were found in the topsoil and later medieval pits. Both are semi-circular in shape: one has a cross (AE630), and the other, a star (AE693).

Late Medieval C

Beaten earth surfaces and the construction of T062, T063 and T064.

A beaten earth and plaster surface 2321=2245=2347 signals the end of the earthen tomb cemetery in the area in front of the church (Fig. 62): it covers the general earth cemetery fill (2489). This surface represents the closure of the northern churchyard as a cemetery. Further remains of a similar surface 2395=2200=2213 were identified in the south of the trench (see above, Fig. 54) cut by a second phase of graves and as outlined above, it is unclear whether the cemetery retracted into the southern third of the churchyard in this period. We were unable to separate out the two phases.

In the north, three walled tombs (T062, T063 and T064) were built at the same time as 2321=2245=2347, creating a northern limit to the area in front of the church, in association with this surface. Their walls are constructed of reused Roman bricks, blocks of limestone and dark white mortar, and are bond with each other and were built at the same time. They appear to have continued to serve as tombs while the area around them was given over to an open churchyard, no longer used for burial.

T062³⁰
T062 is a brick tomb built against the side of the church and [2017]. The addition of a southern wall [2029] and western wall [2016] served to demarcate the tomb (Fig. 63). The tomb contained five articulated skeletons, all of which were laid out in a supine position with heads in the west and feet in the east. The bones were in good condition, but the burials were generally disturbed by later interments. Within the fills of the various burials (2073), (2083), a minimum of four further individuals were found including two 20- to 30-year-old female adults, a child of 5–6 years, and an infant of 12–18 months. The tomb thus contained a minimum of nine individuals. The residual pottery gives a terminus post quem of AD 1250–1350 for the tomb.

At the bottom of the tomb was (2088), a layer of hard yellowish brown clay. Above this, lay 2084*/(2083), the skeleton of a male between 40 and 50 years with crossed arms (left on pelvis, right on chest) oriented west–east (see Fig. 63). The head is turned to the north. The skeleton is missing only the lower right leg and foot. Above lay 2087* the pelvis and the right leg of an adult male aged between 25 and 30 years. A subsequent burial 2080*/(2073) of an a 17- to 20-year-old young adult is oriented west–east, and is missing the pelvis, and the left lower leg and foot, and head. The fourth burial, 2066*/(2073), is a female between 35–45 years of age laid out with crossed arms on a west–east orientation. A bronze tintunabulum (O12) was found in the fill (2073) around 2066*. The latest burial in the tomb, 2064*/(2049), is a probable female between 40 and 50 years with crossed arms on a west–east orientation. The skeleton is complete, apart from the feet.

T063³¹
T063 was built against [2033] and [2525], and consists of the north–south walls [2016], [2053] and the east–west wall [2030]. The southern wall [2029]=[2030] was partially destroyed by the cut 2050 which cut through the grave fill (2052). A reduction containing a minimum of 3 individuals was found at the bottom in a layer of hard brown earth (2097) at the bottom of the tomb. This may however belong to the earlier phase of the tomb.

T064³²
T064 was built against [2033] and consists of the north–south walls [2053] and [2036] and the east–west wall [2030]. It was filled with 85 cm of rubble, earth and loose human bones (2054). A layer of brown earth (2098) was found at the bottom of the tomb and was not excavated.

At some later point, the churchyard was resurfaced with a second beaten earth and plaster surface 2242. Small amounts of pottery, a bronze needle (O143), a buckle (O213), a bead (O209), a possible ring (O189) and two coins were found in the surface. The coins comprised a fourteenth-century denaro provisino (C22) and a bronze ass of Antoninus (C23). 2242 is probably equal to the fragmentary plaster surface 2232 in the south of the trench.

A cemetery in the south of the churchyard?

Unfortunately, our excavations and subsequent analysis were unable to confirm whether the plaster surfaces in the north and south of the trench are contemporaneous, and, in particular, whether those graves that cut the plaster surfaces in the southern third of the trench (see above, South of 2001) indicate a second phase of burials in a restricted area of the churchyard.

Reinforcing wall

Towards the end of this period, the east–west wall [2031] of roughly coursed stone and brick was built against the southern sides of T063 and T064. It only survives partially to a length of 0.74 m x 0.35 m as it is cut to the east by the later robber cut 2050; there is no indication however that it went as far as the church. Its foundation cut 2250/ (2249) cuts 2067.

The Fortification of the Castrum of Villamagna (Fig. 64)

At some later point, a rectangular fortification wall was built abutting the western façade of the church, protecting the church and a small area of land to the north and west of it.

The construction of [2001], a substantial east–west wall abutting the western wall of the church, fortified the area to the west and north of the church (Fig. 65). At the time of the construction of the wall, or just prior to it, the majority of the structures in BI were destroyed. Their destruction is recognizable in cuts to major walls and structures (2037, 2058, 2183, 2387) and the rubble of their knocked-down walls in (2038) and (2060).

The wall runs east–west, measures 18.70 m in length, and terminates outside the trench at the western end in a polygonal tower.  Its masonry is coursed rubble, with many reused squared blocks, per­haps deriving from the bell tower, and some tile. It has three original openings, ‘swallow-tail’ windows with splayed frames facing inwards to the north. Circa 2.75 m above the foundations, the masonry formed a ledge for a wooden walkway.Running along the wall on its north side was [2024], a stone structure (4.90 m x 1.33 m) which might be the foundation for a wooden stair running up to the balcony at first story level (Fig. 66). In the modern period, an arched entranceway was cut into [2001], to facilitate access between fields to the north and south of the church, while the eastern half of the wall was destroyed to foundation level.

The position of the wall, 2.90 m in from the southwest corner of the church, posed some confusion until it was realized that its line coincides with that of the ninth-century clerestorey, which must thus still have been visible and in place. Indeed, much of the south side of the church was rebuilt at a later point, and includes a door which would have rendered the defenses useless. The fortification thus gives a clear terminus post quem for the rebuilding of the church as a single-naved structure.

[2001] cuts the latest beaten earth surface associated with the churchyard, 2067. Its foundations of [2001] use those of earlier structures in places, such as those of the bell tower [2091]. Its construction cut 2068=2227 disturbed multiple burials and structures.The wall was trench built and a foundation trench 2068/(2069) only survives on the north side; it did not contain any datable material (Fig. 67).

Two poorly preserved occupation layers have survived within the fortification: the earliest is a beaten earth surface 2027=2147=2148, with large amounts of masonry and human bone, and traces of burning (Fig. 68). A pit 2246/(2167) containing loose rubble and mortar was found in the centre of this surface, perhaps related to construction work. The fill contained two iron buckles (O74 and O75) and an iron arrow or spearhead (O99). A deposit (2090) of stone and brick fragments raised the floor level near the church; it contained thirteenth-century pottery.

The latest is a beaten earth surface 2028=2044=2045 which extended across the excavated area. There is further evidence of large-scale construction activity in this area. A large plaster/mortar mixing area (2012) with a dip in the centre was found in front of the church. There were several layers of surface and parts of the surfaces were burned on successive occasions. This likely is associated with the construction of the fortification wall, or other structures within the castrum.

A roughly circular ossuary pit 2071/(2072) (2.07 x 1.41 m, d =0.94 m), filled with earth and human bone (primarily long bones) can also be associated with the construction of the fortification (Fig. 69).³⁴ It seems likely that the majority of the bones in this pit are the re-buried bones of those graves disturbed by the construction of the castrum wall. Another irregular shaped pit 2327/(2323) measuring 1.32 x 0.90 m and containing a large quantity of loose human bone was found in the northwest quadrant of trench BI, and was presumably created for a similar reason.

Post-Medieval Period

A series of destruction deposits containing rubble, bricks and marble fragments within the castrum walls—(2008), (2011), (2013) and (2018)—probably represent the abandonment of its structures. Inside the castrum walls, along the western edge of the trench, was a concentrated area of black burnt earth (2043)=(2146) with large pieces of charcoal and brick, mortar and marble fragments. A deep circular pit 2050 (Fig. 70) was cut into T063 removing much of its southern wall; its fill (2051) contained much disturbed bone and rubble. Outside the walls (2025), a layer of dark black earth with pockets of carbon very similar to (2011), was excavated; it lay above another layer of rubble collapse. The chronology of these deposits is unclear but their similarity to the deposits inside the castrum suggests that they too may relate to the abandonment of the castrum.

No clear evidence was found in these contexts to date the abandonment of the castrum, however a papal bull of Sixtus IV from 1478 describes the castrum as abandoned.³⁵ In the absence of fifteenth-century or later finds, an abandonment date in the late fourteenth or fifteenth century seems likely.

Modern Activity

The latest phase of building activity in BI dates to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and consists largely of renovations to the church (Fig. 71). The extent of the renovations is evident from the doorway, with the excavation of a large semi-circular construction trench, 2419/(2418)=(2420), cut into the churchyard for the rebuilding of the church portal [2023] and an associated semi-circular step [2417], of which only one course survives on the southern side of the portal (Fig. 72). A later, cut, 2020/(2022), allowed for the creation of two steps [2014] up to the new entrance. The portal [2023] is carefully constructed from Roman and medieval spolia: an inscription reading ‘[…]O VILLAE MAGNAE’ is used for the entablature; two boundary stones, inscribed ‘V M’, are used for the door sill [2014]; while the lunette is made of reused medieval sculpture. Stratigraphic analysis of the portal indicates that the portal and its doorjambs and lunette were inserted into the fabric of the façade. At the same time, [2015] a short east–west wall of re-used Roman tiles and stone abutting the façade was added to the north of the portal (construction cut = 2493), presumably as a support. A date for the construction of the door seems to be given by the mention of the inscription by Henry Stephenson in the late 1880’s (Vat. Lat. 10573, p. 114 verso.). As it is not mentioned by Mommsen in CIL X, published in 1883, this points to a reconstruction in the middle of the decade. It is not clear, however, how this relates to the reconstruction of the nave: certainly the inner arches could be dated to this time, but the church could have been rebuilt as a single nave at any point after the abandonment of the castrum.

Associated with the rebuilding of the church is 2009, a poorly preserved occupation horizon extending throughout the majority of the trench, north of [2001]. A coin (C2) dating to 1862 provides a terminus post quem for the reconstruction of the church. In front of the church was a deposit of plaster and mortar (2007), probably related to the rebuilding of the church.

A rubble collapse of tiles (2010) abutting the north face of [2001] indicates the presence of a shack which was later destroyed. A posthole 2712 (Fig. 73) containing the remnants of a post in its fill (2713), suggests the presence of another lean-to structure on the south side of [2001] and east of the archway. Probably linked to the construction of this structure is the rectangular cut 2137 filled by (2136), a deposit of rubble and mortar which seems to have been used to shore up [2001].  2137 was cut into (2086), a deposit of earth with small fragments of bone and ceramic, which covered a deposit (2441) from the Late Medieval B phase. A number of other late features were cut into (2441): a loose, dark brown sandy soil deposit west of [2081] in the southwest corner of the trench; a semi-circular pit 2750 filled with rubble (2749); a pit 2480/(2472) containing large amounts of animal bone; all of which probably date to the modern period.Postdating these wooden structures is the partial destruction 2002 of the upper courses of the southern castrum wall, [2001], to ground level. A series of rubble deposits (2003)/2056 and (2021)/2019 probably relate to this destruction. It is unclear whether this portion of the castrum wall was removed for agricultural purposes or is related to WWII activity: nineteenth-century photographs show the wall intact. In WWII, the church and castrum area was used as a machine gun post, and several dumps of spent cartridge shells were found, with scorch marks.

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1 ^Radiocarbon dates are given as BP dates, and calibrated in OxCal 4.1. In the stratigraphic report, unmodelled calibrated dates have been given, as our preferred Bayesian model (see: Radiocarbon report) has been constructed on this model of the stratigraphy.

2^ All skeletons were laid out in the supine position with legs fully extended unless otherwise noted.

3^ 4289, 4239, 4240, 4492, 4537, 4538 = Area BII

4^ See: Young’s account of the stratigraphy of Areas A and G.

5^ See: Fentress and Maiuro, 2011.

6^ See: Fenwick, print volume: 193–6.

7^ See: Hoffman, Roman Glass.

8^ See: Fentress, print volume: 192–3.

9^ Radiocarbon dating provided a date of 931±28 BP or 1020–1170 cal AD (95% probability; OxA-26148), which taken at face value would suggest that T333, at least, dates to the central medieval phase. However, the stratigraphy reveals clearly that this tomb was cut 3982 to insert a later tomb T330 also dated by AMS, but providing an earlier date (1074 ± 27 BP or 895–1020 cal. AD (95% probability; OxA-26149). It seems highly likely, therefore, that the sample submitted was contaminated somehow by later burials or post-excavation. It should be noted that there were only two possible samples for this period, both reductions, and therefore we have disregarded this radiocarbon date from our chronological model.

10 ^For a full discussion of the different possible interpretations of the brick building and our hypothesis that it is a cella vinaria, see: Fenwick, print volume: 193–6.

11^ A fragment of ARS 91C dating to the sixth or seventh centuries was also found in clay packing (3939) abutting [3838].

12^ See: Goodson, Stratigraphic report for Area BII.

13^ The northern opus vittatum wall of the church is [4548]. See: Stratigraphic report for Area BII.

14^ There is one piece of later medieval pottery which is probably contamination from the later construction of [2023] as we did have some difficulties in distinguishing the cuts.

15^  See: Fentress, print volume: 229–31.

16^ On the former, see: Krautheimer 1977: 317–20. On the latter, see: F. W. Deichmann 1969: 258.

17^ See: McNamee, print volume: 273–8.

18^ See: McNamee, print volume: 273–8.

19^ For further discussion, see: Goodson, print volume: 289–92.

20^ See: Goodson, Stratigraphic report for Area BII.

21^ See: Goodson, Stratigraphic report for Area BII.

22^ For a detailed discussion of these structures, including full bibliography, see: Goodson, print volume: 288–98.

23^ See: McNamee, Stratigraphic report for Area C.

24^ See: Goodson, Stratigraphic report for Area BII.

25^ [2030], [2029], [2026], [2052], [2016].

26^ [2031].

27^  See: Human Remains.

28^ See: Gilchrist and Sloane 2005: 155–6.

29^ See: Fenwick, print volume: 361–4.

30^ T062 was referred to as Tomb A in the interim reports.

31^ T063 was referred to as Tomb B in the interim reports.

32^ T064 was referred to as Tomb C in the interim reports.

33^ NB. It is obviously impossible to ascertain conclusively whether these surfaces on the north and south of the wall match up, nonetheless there are on both sides three discrete surfaces, (very poorly preserved to the south due to the later graves) and the elevations are roughly comparable.

34^ A few articulated ankle bones of an adult were found on the eastern edge of 2071, and originally assigned the HRU number 2881*; post-excavation it was decided that these in fact belonged to the ossuary pit. The entries on ARK were therefore deleted.

35^ ‘castrum dirutum Villemagne’ BAV, ASV, Reg. Vat. 598, f. 265.